Monday, December 31, 2012

QUESTION:- What is implies in the following terms? Resident, patient, therapist, helper, and customer.

QUESTION:- What is implies in the following terms? Resident, patient, therapist, helper, and customer.

DATE OF SUBMISION: 16/04/2012

RESIDENT

Resident is a person who lives in a particular place or who has their home, Or Resident a person who lives some where for a long time bases. (Oxford English Dictionary and Oxford Advanced Learner’s, 2004).

Also resident Is the non-citizens allowed by the state to have his or her temporary or permanent residence within its political boundaries, and to have the right to employee or employer. A resident can usually cast his or her ballot in local municipal and national election but can not be a candidate, diplomat or head of armed force or the state. In short Residence means a person’s home.

(http://www.businessdictionary.com).

PATIENT

Patient is any recipient of health care services. The patient is most often ill or injured and waiting treatment from the doctor. Or A person who receiving medical treatment especially in a hospital.

Patient is a person who receive treatment from a particular doctor, dentist etc.

Also Patient is a some body able to wait for a long time or accept annoying, behavior, or difficulties without becoming angry. (http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/patient).

THERAPIST

One who specialize in the provision of a particular therapy. And therapy means treatment attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a diagnosis (measurements). Therapy must be a certain way congruent in the momentary relationship to the client while experiencing unconditional positive regard towards and empathic understand of the client frame of reference.

(http://www.helpguide.org/mental/psychotherapy-therapist-counseling.htm).

Therapist is a person who works to understand your specific needs and troubles and offers comfort and healing when you hurt or is a person who journeys with you during difficult times in your life and remains hopeful for change through the therapy process. And that Therapy divided into four types such as individual therapy, family therapy, group therapy and couples therapy (marriage counseling) as follows:-

(a) Individual therapy explores negative thought and fallings as well as the harmful or self-destructive behavior that must accompany them. Individual therapy may delve into the underlying causes of current problems (such as unhealthy relationship patterns or traumatic experience from your past), but the primary focus is on making positive changes in the here and now.

(b) Family therapy. Involve treating more than one member of the family at the same time to help the family resolve conflict and improve interaction. It is often based on the promise that families are the system. If one role in the family changes all are affected and need to change their behavior as well.

(c) Group therapy is facilitating by a professional therapist, and involves a group of peers working in a same problem, such as anxiety, depression, or substance abuse, for example group therapy can be a valuable place to practice social dynamic in a safe involving and get inspiration and ideas from peers who are struggling with same issues.

(d) Couples therapy (marriage counseling). It involves the two people in a commented relationship. People go to couples therapy to learn how to work through their challenges in the relationship.

(http://www.helpguide.org/mental/psychotherapy-therapist-counseling.htm).

HELPER

Helper may refer to assistant, a person or device that helps. The helper can be either in medical assistant, social worker, or psychologist assistant. (http://www.en.wikipedia/org/wiki/helper).

Helper is a person who contributes to fulfillment of a need or furtherance of an effort or purpose; may invaluable assistance “they hired additional help- to finish the work” (assistant, help, and supporter).

Helper can means two things as helping person or a person one who act as a labor, practice person towards certain things so as to assist others. These two ideas often hang together, from helper comes a helping action. Hilary Graham suggested that, there is helping for and helping about, where helping for concern the more specific work employed in looking after someone, and helping about concern with others. (Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2008), in the book “Sociology a global introduction”).

CUSTOMER

Customer is the person, company, or other entity which buys goods and services produced by another person, company or other entity. (http://www.investorwords.com/5877/customer.htm).

Customer is a person or organization that a marketer believes will benefit from the goods and services offered by the marketers organization. as this definition suggests a customer is not currently purchasing from the marketer or Customer (also known as a client, buyer,or purchaser)is the recipient of a good,service,product,or idea obtained from a seller,vender,or supplier for a monetary or other valuable consideration(http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/customer).

Intact customers may fall into one of three customer group as follows:

(a)Existing customers-consists of customers who have purchased or otherwise used an organizations goods or services, typically within a designated period of time .

(b)Former customer-this group consists of those who have formally had relatives with the marketing reorganization typically through a provision purchase.ie former customers just purchased a similar product from the marketers competitors. The value of this group to a marketer will depend on whether the customers previous relationship was considered satisfactory to a former customer who liked the marketer but decided to buy from one else who had a similar product that was priced lower.

(c)Potential customers. The third category of customers include those who have yet to purchase but posses what the marketer believes are the requirement to the eventually become existing customers. the requirement to become customer include such issue as having a need for a product, possessing the financial means to buy, and having the authority to make a buying decision.

Locating potentially customers is on going process for two reasons such as Existing customers may become former customer ( for example decide to buy for a competitors) and those must be replaced by a new customers. And lastly is an existing customer is the best source for future sales, it is new customers that are needed in order for a business to significant expand.

REFFERENCES.

Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2008), Sociology a global introduction, 4^th edition,

London, Pearson Education ltd

Sally Wehmeier (Author), A. S. Hornby (Editor), January 2000, Oxford Advanced

Learner's Dict (Dictionary, six edition. Oxford University Press

http://www.investorwords.com/5877/customer.htm/09-04-2012/11:43AM

http://www.en.wikipedia/org/wiki/helper/09-04-2012/12:04PM

http://www.helpguide.org/mental/psychotherapy-therapist-counseling.htm/11-04-2012/01:19PM

http://www.helpguide.org/mental/psychotherapy-therapist-counseling.htm/11-04-2012/01:40PM

http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/patient/11-04-2012/11:30PM

http://www.businessdictionary.com/11-04-2012/12:IOPM

QUESTION: Explain the theory of neo-evolutionism and functionalism in cultural anthropology.

NAMES OF WRITERS

1. CHIWAMBO AUSI R.

2. SAMSONI ROSE

3. BOGOYA ALLY

4. MNYAMISI AKIDA S.

QUESTION: Explain the theory of neo-evolutionism and functionalism in cultural anthropology.

DATE OF SUBMISION: 16/12/2011
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

-Meaning of cultural anthropology

MAIN BODY

-Neo-evolutionism theory

.criticism

-Functionalism theory

.criticism

CONCLUTION

DEFINITION OF CULTURA ANTHROPOLOGY
Cultural anthropology is the study of human culture, their believes, practices, values, ideas, technology, economics, and other domains of social and cognitive organization. This field is based primarily on culture understanding gained through first hand experience, a participant observation within living population of humans (http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture )
Cultural anthropology is the branch of anthropology focused on the study of culture variation among humans, collection data about the impact of the global economy and political process on local cultural realities. The anthropologist use the variety of methods, including participant observation, interview and surveys (http://www.answers.com/topic/acultural-anthropology )
Therefore, cultural anthropology defined as a study of human culture based on ethnology and ethnography through observation participant, experience as well as survey. when we say culture we includes beliefs, values, ideas, norms, tradition and customs. Ethnography means studying differences and similarities of contemporary culture, and ethnology means studying culture in detail or features.
NEO EVOLUTIONISM
Neo evolutionism is a social theory that tries to explain the evolution of society that introduced by Charles Darwin’s and later developed by Herbert Spencer. The name "neo-evolutionism" implies that this is something new, which is somewhat misleading.
Some neo-evolutionists rejected this term and called their science "plain old evolutionism" - and so it was! (Sahlins and Service 1960, p. 4). The tradition from Spencer and Tylor was continued without much novel thinking. The neo-evolutionists focused on describing the evolution of societies through a number of stages, finding similarities between parallel evolutionary processes, and finding a common formula for the direction of evolution.
One important difference from nineteenth century evolutionism was that the laws of biological inheritance now were known to everyone. No one could carry on with confusing genetic and social inheritance, and a clear distinction was drawn between racial and social evolution. Theories were no longer racist, and the old social Darwinism was rejected.
Whereas genetic inheritance can only go from parent to child, the cultural heritage can be transmitted in all directions, even between unrelated peoples. The neo-evolutionists therefore found diffusion important. They realized that a culture can die without the people carrying that culture being extinguished. In other words, the cultural evolution does not, unlike the genetic evolution, depend on the birth and death of individuals (Childe 1951).
Neo evolutionism emerged in 1930’s where based on empirical evidence (through conducting research), but previously evolution used as a value judgments and assumptions for interpreting data, and neo evolutionism also it is modern matrilineal evolutionary theory (Julius and Steward, 1955).
Neo evolutionism developed intensively in the period after the second world and was incorporated into anthropology as well as sociology in 1960’s. Also this theory basing on empirical evidence from the field such as archeology, paleontology, and historiography (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=neo-evolutionism )
Scholar who explained the concept of neo evolutionism are Ferdinand Tonnies, Leslic A. White (1900-1975), Lewis Henry Morgan, George Peter Murdock (1897-1975), Nikolai Kardashev (Russian), and Julian Steward (1902-1972); who introduced the theory of culture: The methodology of matrilineal evolution, 1955 and printed 1979.
According to Steward (1955), he added that, neo evolutionism is also the way in which societies adapted their environment in the some way. This can be through examination of specific resources which a society exploits, the technology used to exploit resources and organization of human labour. This was argued by White (1900-1975).
This was introduced by White (1900-1975), through his formula which stare that “C=E*T or P=E*T. According to him ‘C’ stand for Culture, ‘E’ means measures of energy consumed, and ‘T’ means measure of efficiency of technical factors. Or simply Culture=Energy * Technology. This is being practiced when a person applying knowledge and technology have so as to achieve its goals based on culture.
Further more he argued that, different environments and technology would acquire different kind of adaptations, based on culture. And that culture never change in some inner logic but the society change according to environment. He introduced examples of this culture is common culture of a certain region. Examples of common culture are language, religious, education and marriage.
Gerhard Lenski in neo evolutionism introduced four stages of human progress or development based on culture through advancing history of communication. This are
1. Information passed through genes. It mean a person inherit genes from parent biologically.
2. Senteince. This means capacity of feelings, or sense. When a person gained senteince, they can learn and pass information through experience.
3. human state using signs and develop the logic. Sign interpret information. This can be gesture, posture, facial expression and physical appearances.
4. Symbols creations. This is based on language and writing.
And that stage develops into economic system, social and political system. Therefore through these stages, a person can think what thing to follow within a certain culture.
CRITICISM
Neo evolutionism theory through those scholar explained above based on how culture champion development but failure to explain how one society being above in terms of development rather than other by using the same element of culture.
Neo-evolutionists used more energy on studying the course and direction of evolution than its fundamental mechanisms.
Both scholars repeating the three elements in Darwin's general formula: variation, selection, and reproduction, without going into detail.
Neo evolutionism, there was surprisingly little attention to the process of selection. Hardly anyone cared to define the criteria that determined, which features were promoted by the cultural selection, and which were weeded out. They were satisfied with the general criterion: survival value. Still the tautology is haunting! Without the selection criterion they also missed any argument why the evolution should go in the claimed direction.
There was also certain confusion over what the unit of selection was. Was it customs, which were selected, or was it the people bearing them? Or was it entire societies that were the objects of the selection process?
FUNCTIONALISM THEOTY
Functionalism is the broad perspective in sociology and anthropology which sets out interpret a society as a structure with interrelated parts (http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-structure ).
In short the theory of functionalism regard culture as an integrated whole and tries to explain how the relationship among the part of society are created and how that this part are functional (meaning having beneficial consequences to the individual and society) and dysfunction (meaning having negative consequences). This is according to Howard and Dunaif Hattis (1992).
The functionalism theory sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. So, this means our social lives guided by structure which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior (Macionis, 1997).
According to anthropologists Radchiff Brown and Bronslaw Malinowki, explain the functionalism in two contexts which are structure structural functionalism and psychological functionalism.
Structural functionalism stresses the characteristics of society and its structure over the individuals, and how the various elements of social structure function to remain social order and equilibrium (to make society as equal). And psychological functionalism stress individual need to be met by society.
Generally, functionalism addresses society as whole in terms of function of its constituents elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), explained that, the society work as “organs” that work toward the proper functioning of the body as whole. According to him, compared society work as like organs of human being such as brains, hearts and other parts of body works. Example is that, government depending much on citizens and citizens depend on government.
Alfred Redcliffe Brown, explained that, the doctrine of functionalism states that all cultural straight arise as a human adaptations to survive in a certain environments. So, any straight can be analyzed to find the function related to survival of the individual or society.
When explained survival needs expressed in three contexts such as:-
1. Individual, whereby culture must meet the survival need of the individual and of the society. These needs of individual are method for getting food, tools, and safety, relation to other human and medical needs.
2. Society. The needs of society are reproduction, protection, and distribution of resources and maintenance of order.
3. Institution. This is to accomplish need of both individual and society culture, generally have a certain institution such as kinship, government, laws, economy and religion.
So, culture must motivate human survive, and culture must provide humans with a meaning in life at some level that wills them to put the effort into survival. Therefore, without the fundamental motivation, women would not perform the work needed to continue their existence and the culture would become extinct (no longer existing).
CRITICISM
The weakness of functionalist theory has that, it failed to explain why society different or similar.
The theory also unable to explain social and cultural change, as it viewed society as stable and unchanging.
Functionalism failed to achieve its ambition of building society as egalitarian. This was argued by Karl Max (1918-1983) who said “the only way through which capitalist can gain super profit is to insure intensive exploitation of workers and not otherwise”
This was in the conference of Vienna Austria, (1840’s). So, is how happening today within the era of imperialist whereby the system increase gap between they have and they have not.
CONCLUTION
All this two theory come to answer the question of why. And as a human being we need to apply it in order to solve problem affecting us in a certain period of time. And that problem should being solved through empirical evidence which involving conducting research. So, by doing that people would work as organs.

REFERENCES
Elvio Angeloni (2008), Classic Edition Sources : Anthropology, New York, Mc Graw
Hill Press.
Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: the exploration of human diversity, 10th Edition,
New York, Mc Graw Hill Press.
McGree, R. J. and Warms, R. L. (2004), Anthropological Theory; an introductory history,
3rd Edition, Southwest Taxas State University, Mc Graw Hill Press
Zerihun Doda (2005), Introduction To Social Cultural Anthropology, Debub University,
EPHT (Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative) Press
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-cultural-evolution#sociobiology/12/12/2011:
00:42 Am
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/structural-functionism/12/12/2011/6:58Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB-cultural-anthropology/the-nature-of-culture/functionalism/12/12/2011/8:52Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture/28/11/2011/5:17Pm
http://www.utpa.edu/fuculty/mglazer/theory/functionalism.htm/12/12/2011/7:09Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture/12/12/2011/8:52Pm
http://www.answers.com/topic/acultural-anthropology/12/12/2011/8:54Pm

Question. What are the similarities and different between Nuclear family and Extended family?

INTRODUCTION

.Meaning of family
.Meaning of nuclear family
.Meaning of extended family
.Characteristics of nuclear family
.Characteristics of extended family

MAIN BODY

.Similarities between nuclear family and extended family

.Different between nuclear family and extended family.

.Which is the best one between nuclear family and extended family.

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Family is a set of people related by blood, marriage or some other agreed-upon relationship, or adoption who shares the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of the society (Schaefer, 2008:308).
Murdock (1949), defined family as a social group whose members are related by ancestry, marriage or adoption, and live together, cooperate economically, care for the young.
Gubrium and Holstein (1990), defined family is social contracts which are often independent of legal or kin status.
Family is a close-knit group of people who come about and respect each other (Laver and Laver, 2000).
Therefore, according to our perspective, family defined as a group of people which consist of father, mother, and children either by blood or adoption, and can be nuclear or extended.
Nuclear family is the arrangement of spouses and their offspring (children’s) constitutes the core relationship blood relatives are functionally marginal and peripheral (Hughes and Kroehler, 2008).
Shankar Rao, (2006), defined nuclear family is one consists of the husband, wife and their children. According to him, believed that nuclear family is mostly independent whereby being free from the control of the elders. Example of this modern independent nuclear family is American families.
Nuclear family defined as a small group composed of husband, wife and immature children which constitutes a unit apart from the rest of the community (Duncan Mitchell in his “Dictionary of Sociology”).
Nuclear family is the group consisting of father, mother, and their children, all exclusively sharing living quarters. Also nuclear family allows for step parent and any mix of independent children that include stepchildren and adoption children (http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nuclear-family#mw-head)
Generally, nuclear family can be defined as a type of family which consists of husband/father, mother/wife, and their children.
Extended family is the arrangement of kin-individuals related by common ancestry-provided the core relationship; spouses are functionally marginal and peripheral (Michael Hughes and Carolyn J. Kroehler, 2008).
Extended family is a family in which relatives such as grandparents, aunts, or uncle live in the same house as parent and their children (Schaefer, 2005).
Extended family is a family group consists of parent, and other relative often living in close proximity. Or nuclear family is group of relatives, such as those of three generations , who live close geographic proximity rather than under the same roof (http://www.answers.com/topic/extended-family)
Therefore, extended family is a family which consist more than one family which include parents, and their children as well as other relatives. This extended family is more practiced in African societies.
The following are the characteristics of nuclear families:- it consist of only father, mother and children’s, it is small in size, easy to control self economy, and it is modern and universal (practiced all over the world).
And, extended family have the following characteristics:- involve more than one family, it is not limited in size, the member are related and it is easily to control security.

The following are the relationship between nuclear family and extended families:-
Both nuclear family and extended family are the types of family. All this two are the type of family according to size and structure where by nuclear is a group consists of father, mother, and children. And extended group is a group consists of grandparents and other relatives.
Both nuclear family and extended family share the same function of socialization, whereby norms and values passing from the old or aged people to young. These elders can be; parents, uncles, grand father, grandmother, and aunt.
Both nuclear family and extended family supporting economic in terms of financial and ay kind of wealth. Within nuclear family, parents such as father and mother are the one who provide support of economically to their children either in terms of money or any kind of wealth. And within extended family it is also for whole family members who are social related.
Both nuclear family and extended family continually re-size and re-modal (mirror) among themselves and the changes that brings significantly after live the children out of their origin family.
Both nuclear family and extended family, affection, duties and common interests are closely connected us.

The following are the different or contrast between nuclear family and extended family. And that different are in the following context:-
Meaning. Nuclear family is the type of family which consists father, mother, or one of them an their children either by blood or adoption, While extended family is a families which involve more than one families living together and share various ideas, feelings, and heir activities.
Duration. In terms of duration, the nuclear family is newly and modern. This was started in western countries including United States of America (USA) whereby people started to form their own independent family from the hand of parent, and that emerged soon after industrial development. While extended family is more oldest compared to nuclear family.
Socialization. Within nuclear family, for the case of socialization, norms and values being generated from parent only who are father and mother, While in extended family, norms and values being generating from the elders like uncles, grand mother, aunts, grand father, mother, father and so forth.
Independent. Nuclear family is independent (Shankar Rao, 2006:). When he said independent means, the family member (father and mother) form their own residence apart from their origin family where they come from and depending each and everything as a wife and husband themselves. While extended family there is tendencies of depending among themselves. Example is about economic issues, member of the family depending to someone who has well economy.
Stable satisfication of sex need. Within nuclear family, the member who are father and mother (spouses) have enough time to satisfied on sexual needs because there is no interruption with other families. While in extended family, sex sutisfication is less because of interruption of peoples within a kin member.
THE BEST ONE BETWEEN NUCLEAR AND EXTENDED FAMILY IS NUCLEAR FAMILY.
Nuclear family is most important due to the following reasons:-
Social satisfication. Within a nuclear family, the spouses have a lot of time on sharing sexual stratification. This is because; there is no interruption from their relative who would interfere their relationship.
Easily provision of services and basic needs. Within a nuclear family, parents have high ability to provide social services and basic needs such as food, clothes, and shelter to his family. Examples of these services are education and health. This is because family has few in number compared to extended family.
Reduce cost. Nuclear family const one family and it is involving little number of people compared to extended family. Doe to this the care of family is less expensive and it is easily to distribute needs equal.
Protective. Within a nuclear family the family member dealing with protecting children for feature advantages. This is goes together with giving children enough education based on how to live with other member of society.
CONCLUSION
Conclusion to that

REFERENCES
Hughes, M. and Kroehler, J. C. (2008), Sociology the core, 7th Edition, New York, Mc
Mc Graw Hill Press.
Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: the exploration of human diversity, 10th Edition,
New York, Mc Graw Hill Press.

Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2008), Sociology a global introduction, 4th Edition,
London, Pearson Education Press.
Schaefer, R. T. (2008), Sociology a brief introduction, 7th edition, New York, Mc Graw
Hill Press.
Schaefer, R. T. (2008), Sociology Matters, 3rd Edition, New York, Mc graw Hill Press.
Shankar Rao, C. N. (2006), Sociology: principles of Sociology with an Introduction to
Social Thought, 6th Edition, New Delhi, Rajendra Ravindra Press.
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nuclear-family#mw-head/25/11/2011/9:17Am
http://www.answers.com/topic/extended-family/25/11/2011/9:32Am

by CHIWAMBO AUSI R, TEOFILO KISANJI UNIVERSITY (TEKU), 2012

QN. Society and culture are twins sisters. Discuss

TEOFILO KISANJI UNIVERSITY
WWW.TEKU.AC.COM
WRITTEN BY CHIWAMBO, AUSI R
20/12/2011
CONTACT: E-MAIL ausichiwambor@yahoo.com
Phone no.0753110740
0652403792
TANZANIA
QUESTION: SOCIETY AND CULTURE ARE TWINS SISTERS.

TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION
.Background of society and culture
.Meaning of anthropologist, society and culture.
.Characteristics of society and culture.

MAIN BOBY
.Similarities between society and culture

CRITICS
RECOMMANDATION
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

It is true to say “society and culture are twin’s sisters”. Societies depend on culture and culture depends on society. It means goes together. When one of this missing we say society is going randomly because every person will work according to his influence only. Culture shapes societies and society being shaped depending on the nature of environment. The anthropologist compares society and culture as twins sisters as follow by starting the concept of each one:-
The word Anthropology means study of organisms interacting each other in the environment. And Anthropologist refers to a person who deals with the study of human nature, human society, and human past, together with how people or human beings are interacting with environment.
Society, this word is derived from Latin words “societas” from noun “socius” which means companionship or friendship (Shankar Rao, 2006). Also he quoted some of scholar who definition society as follow:-
Society is the union itself, the organization, the some of social relations in which associating individual are bound together (Pr. Giddings).
Society can be defined as not to a group of people, but the complex pattern of the norms of interaction, that arises among and between them (Lapiere).
According to Hess (1992), he defined society refers to the group of people living in an area (boundaries) under a leader and engage in different economic activities.
Therefore, Society can be defined as the group of people related to each other through persistence relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territories, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectation.
Or society defined as group of people living together in specific boundaries where by headed by leader and involving on economic activities together with culture.
And, Culture defined as social heritage, that is, all the knowledge, material object, beliefs, customs and skills that is available to the number of society (Leonard Broom and Philip Selznick).
Schaefer, R. T. (2008), defined culture is the totality of leaned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge material objects and behavior. It includes the ideas, values, and customs.
According to Hughes and Kroehler (2005), defined culture as the social heritage of people-those leaned patterns for thinking, feeling and acting that are transmitted from one generation to next include material and non-material.
Edward B. Tylor, the English anthropologist, defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society.
Generally culture means totality of people’s live in a given areas includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs and language.
Therefore, Culture and society they are inseparable or it relating each other (Shankar Rao, 2006), It means that no society no culture or it’s vice versa. It relates one another.
The word society divided into three categories such as; firstly is pre-industrial, where by involving on agriculture based on food production, hunting and gathering as well as pastoralist.
Secondly, industrial societies, the period where dominated by the use of industries on producing goods including food collection. And lastly, is Post-industrial societies where dominated by the development of information technology.There is the biggest information companies like Microsoft companies, Face book, twitter, Google engine Companies, Bing machine and Yahoo companies. Through post-Industrial people’s advancing on the use of computerization, and internet explore in all aspect such as education, research, health, banking, laws, and banking. All this kind of culture is done through leaning.
The main characteristics of society are mutual interaction and awareness, society consist people, co-operations and division of labour, society should have culture, society is interdependence, and it is dynamic
And, culture characterized by being learnt, does not exist in isolation, culture is shared, culture is transmissive, culture is commutative and continuous, culture is dynamic and adaptive, culture varies from society and society, and lastly culture is super organic and ideational (Shankar Rao, 2006).
The similarities of society and culture are present in some element of culture as agued by shankar Rao, and Kottak (2004). Therefore, the following are the similarities between society and culture as twin’s sisters:-
Language. Language is a part of culture which transmitting from one generation to another through learning. Human being as a part of society, in order to communicate with other people in the society needs language. Good example is Swahili language in Tanzania uniting people together and solving problem around them. This is also the some as happen in other language including local language such as Sukuma, Yao, Makua, Tindiga and Nyakyusa.
Beliefs. This is the specific statement that people hold is true. Within the society, it including people, and that people have their own believes depending on the interest of the person. Example of believes is religious such as Islamic and Christianity where by used to shape behavior of people through its lessons. So, due to this, people being shaping by culture in terms of religious in order to drive well their society.
Values and Norms, means things which guided the society based on what we should do and not, or what is good or bad. Simply it is regulations of the societies. Society needs that regulation for daily life in order to be real society. Without norms and values in the society, every body will do whatever either bad or good. So, in order to avoid it, norms and values are being implemented in the society.
Food. No one who will survive without eating any kind of food. Therefore, society needs food in order to survive, but the kind of food is quit different from one society and another. And this food stands as a part of culture within a society depending nature of society and environment. For instance Nyakusa, Safwa, and Haya depending much on bananas, and, tribes like Sukuma, Yao, Makua, wamwela, and Makonde depending on Ugali.
Symbolic, Anthropologist Leslie White (1959:3), said that “symbolic is something verbal or non-verbal, within a particular culture or language that come to stand for something else. In each society have their own symbol or sign which is quit different with other societies. By taking Tanzania as example, our symbol is our national flags which are quit different with other national flags. Also we have tribes like Maasai, Nyaturu, Tindige and Mang’ati are known through their dressing, and general appearance. So, due to this, society depending much on their symbols, and symbols as a part of culture which help to determine peoples in the society in terms of their origin.
Arts and craft. In African, each society depends on their own arts and craft. Some involving on making pottery, making traps especially along coast and river, making basketry, and involving in playing drummers and singing African songs. Example is Makonde society involving much on making masks or carving. This society being famous on that because of their own culture, it is not similarly with how other making masks. So due to this, society has been shaped by culture depending with the nature of environment.
Greeting system. Greeting as a part of African culture. And every body in the society has a right to greet any one without regarding their age. Within African societies including Tanzania tribes have their own way of greeting depending the nature of tribes. For instance, it is normal issues for any among Wakinga-Makete district, to drop down during greeting, and also it is the same among Nyakyusa, but along the coast tribes it is normal to greet a person without drop down as Wakinga do.
CRITICISM
Not all culture is important to the development of our societies. There are some of cultures undermining some groups within the society. And that kind of culture should be removed for the benefit of whole society. Some of these cultures which have negative impact to our society are women circumcision and food taboos. Through women circumcision, women lead to lack of desire of love even after being married, and also it is easily to get Fistula and its impact is segregating.
Even though culture depend on society, and society depend on culture, but the reality this two words are quit different even in terms of meaning. It is not the same (Shankar Rao, 2006:192). Therefore, the following are the different between culture and society:-
Firstly, culture is a system of behavior shared by the member of society. Here means that, culture is a system of behaving people in a certain society, While, society is the group of people who share the common culture (Shankar Rao, 2006).
Secondly, Lalph Linton showed that a society is organized group of individual (the group of people who related each other as individual), while culture is an organized group of learned responses characteristics of particular society.
Finally, society is composed of people who are interacting on the basis of shared, beliefs, values and activities, While, culture is cement binding together into the society its components of individual.
Therefore, culture influence people how to live in a certain area, but society need to follow what kind of culture that will see goods.
ROCOMMANDATION
Culture has seen as a great influence to the development of any society. Every body abided by culture surrounding his or her. This culture transmitted either through learning or sharing information from one society and another. Therefore, the following are advantages of culture to the development of societies:-
Culture help to unite people, this is through various ceremony being practiced in the society. Some time during funnily, people uniting together and take it as a problem of whole society around.
Culture creates behaviors and control how to live with other people, this is through norms and values. And each society has its own values and norms which protecting or guiding people how to live within the society.
CONCLUSION
Therefore, society should see what kind of culture to follow and adapt. Some of culture is not functionable to our society. It humiliating women and seeing as inferior group. In order to help them, we must avoid all culture which has negative impact to our society. Also culture from abroad must be selected which is good and what is bad. By doing that African culture will remain to be stable.

REFERENCES
Bukagile, G. R. (2008), Civics For Secondary Schools, Dar-es-salaam, Nyambari
Nyangwine Press.
Eugene, N. n. (Editor, 1954), Customs and Cultures Anthropology for Christians, New
York,
Hughes, M. and Kroehler C. J. (2oo5), Sociology the Core, 7th edition, New York, Mc
Graw Hill Press.
Kottak, C. P. (2004 c), Anthropology: The Explanation of Human Diversity, 10th edition, . University of Michigan, Mc Graw Hill publishers
Schaefer, R. T. (2008), Sociology matters,3rd Edition, Chicago University, Mc Graw Hill
Shankar Rao, C. N. (2006), Sociology: principles of sociology with an introduction to
Social thought, 6th edition, New Delhi, Rajendra Ravendra and S. Chand Press.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/cultural-Anthropology/introduction/04/12/2011:9:20
Am/Released by Creative Common Attribution Share Alike License/19.october.
2011:20:43

WRITTEN BY CHIWAMBO, AUSI R
TEOFILO KISANJI UNIVERSITY
BA-SOCIOLOGY

QN. What are the problem of Bureaucracy?

QUESTION: What are the problem of Bureaucracy?
INTRODUCTION
.Background of bureaucracy
.Definition of bureaucracy
.Characteristics of bureaucracy
.Factors contributing to the development of Bureaucracy

MAIN BODY
.problem manifested by bureaucracy

CRITICISM
RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION.

BACKGROUND OF BUREAUCRACY
The earliest idea of “bureaucracy” was introduced by the economist Vincent De Gournay (Shankar Rao, 2006). The word Bureaucracy is derived from the word “Bureau” used from the eighteenth century in Western Europe to refer not only to a writing desk, but to an office, or workplace, where officials worked.
The word “bureau” derived from French words which is “Baize” means to cover desk, and a government which is run from table. Also, the word derived from Greek suffix “Kratia” or “Krotos” means “power” or “rule”. Literally the word bureaucracy means power or office rule, the rule of the officialdom. (Burdock, 3rd April 2008).
The word is used shortly before the French revolution of 1789, and from their spread rapidly to other countries. The word speeded much in French by Fredrich Melchior, Baron Von Grimm and Jean Claude Marrie and Vincent De Gourney from July, 01, 1764 where introduced idea of regulation.
Other scholar who develop idea of bureaucracy are Fredrick Taylor (1856-1915), Henry Fayol (1841-1925), Elton Mayo (1880-1949), and later Scholars such as Herbert Simon (1916-2001), and Dwight Waldo (1913-2000).
The German sociologist, politician, economist, and administrative Max Weber (1864-1920), was one who developed the concept of “Bureaucracy” and called him a further of bureaucracy. He succeeded to show the meaning of bureaucracy, characteristics, factors, and the main problem as show by Shankar Rao (2006).
Therefore, the following are the definition of bureaucracy:-
Max Weber defined bureaucracy as a type of hierarchical organization which is designed rationally to co-ordinate the work of individuals in pursuit of large scale administrative tasks. Weber added that, bureaucracy are organized according to rational principles, official ranked in a hierarchical orders and operations are characterized by impersonal rules (shankar Rao, 2006).
Also, Max Weber (1947:339), defined bureaucracy refers to a system of control based on rational rules, with the goal of archiving efficiency.
Schaefer, R. T. (2008), define Bureaucracy is the component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency.
Hughes and Kroehler (2008), believed that, bureaucracy refers to social structure made up of a hierarch of statuses and roles that is prescribed by explicit rules and procedures and based on division of function and authority.
Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2008), defined bureaucracy is an organizational model rationally designed to perform complex tasks efficiently. In bureaucratic deliberately enact and revise policy to make the organization as efficient as possible.
Brondon Herris (Editor, October 2011), bureaucracy is an organization of non-elected officials of a government or organization who implement the rules, laws, and function of their institution, and are occasionally characterized by officialism and red tape.
Therefore, bureaucracy can be defined as a rational, systematic and precise for organization whereby use rules, regulation and techniques so as to make succeed the ambition of an organization.
Max Weber (1946, 1947), introduced various characteristics of bureaucracy such as; clear-cut division of labour because there is duties and responsibility, Hierarchy of authority where by each position is under the supervision of high authority or all official work as the pyramid in shape, Existence of written rules, and regulations, Impersonality where dictate the official perform their duties without giving personal consideration to people as individual.
Employment based on technical qualification rather than on favoritism and measured against specific standard, and lastly is administrative decisions, rules, procedures and activities are recorded in written documents preserved in permanent files, and lastly fixed salaries, allowance, and pension where by officials paid monthly and other allowances.
Apart from characteristics of bureaucracy, also there are factors contributing to the development of bureaucracy as shown by Shankar Rao, (2006:720). This are:-the development of money economy guaranties a constant income for maintaining bureaucracy through a system of taxation, modern industries and states which require a big army of administrative official’s necessitated bureaucracy, and rational interpretation by laws.
The following are the problem manifested by bureaucracy:-
Michal Hughes and Kroehler (2008), discussed three problem of bureaucracy as follows:-
Oligarchy. This is the form of government in which only a small group of people (few people) hold all the power. The concentration of power in the hands of few people (individual) led to the use their office to advance their own fortunes and self interest. This is due to existence of Hierarchy system where by gives power the top leaders to decide what he/she want. Example, is the case (scandal) of David Jairo the former secretary of ministry of energy and minerals (July, 2011), where decided to collect money from within lower organization (ministry) against Tanzania regulation. (Saed Kubenea, 31, Augost-6th September. 2011, Mwanahalisi, No. 257.pg.2 ).
Dysfunctions of bureaucracy. Means not working in satisfactory or successively way. In many organizations, management specializations are not production or meeting consumer needs but it become the way to the top. Even when they function as they were designed to, bureaucracy may produce harmful consequences. Example is during post-world war second when USA decided to embrace Weber is bureaucratic society complete, the impact had corporation become overstaffed making the nation uncompetive in the world Market (Richard Rosecrance, 1990).
Bureaucracy is an idealized model. The word mean to consider or represent as being perfect or better than the really way are. It is imaginative issues and it is difficult/ impossible to realize in practice. Therefore, bureaucracy is not immune to social change. When such changes are frequent and the rapid, the part answers supplied by bureaucratic regulations and rules interfere with rational operation.
Therefore, the following are other problems manifested by bureaucracy:-
Inefficiency. This is the situation whereby an organization fails to implement the best way of using time, money, energy or resources. This is commonly in government organization. For example, in governments pays is not competitive with pay in private employment, hence there is no incentive to work at the most efficient (Alon, T. 2006). Taking Tanzania as example, most workers in government sectors fail to use time to develop an organization, but they spend a lot of time for unnecessary issues.
Corruption. This is the misuse of public funds (offices). This is happen when an institution pays lower salaries to their workers. Because of that many are tempt to commit petty graft by stealing either a ream of paper or other offices supplies (these are the workers who work the lowest level) . and the higher officers commit in the greater corruption. So, the impact of that, led to failure of an organization to work effectively.
Nepotism and relativism, in this, the relative of a certain officer being benefited much compared to other families or tribes. Officers try to use all his/her best power go give any kind of employment his/her relatives from his either is tribes or family without considering education level of a certain relative. The impact of this is poor performance of organization goals because some people become workers without having qualificacition in his/her position. The problem caused by hierarchy where a top leader having a voice to decide whatever than other members within an organization.
Rigidity and inertia in making decision. Inertia means lack of desire or ability to move or change, and continuing moving in the straight-line unless it is acted by force from outside. And rigidity means static or remains in a constant line without changing. Therefore, decision making of an organization always go slows or even impossible when facing unusual case and similarly delaying change, evaluation and adaptation of old procedures to new circumstances.
The phenomena of group thinking. Bureaucracy undermines freedom of thinking of other people by implementing boundaries to each worker. The chief executive officers or manager remain as important person who thinking much about the development of an organization. Whatever said by the top leaders, the lower follow and do without any complain. For instance in militaries have the slogan of “do then complain”. It means that, a person must perform a works and thereafter complete a person need to complain to whom gives a certain punishments or other levels.
Lack of competent and effectiveness leadership. Some of leaders of an organization are not competent on their work. They depend much to lower leaders to create some issues. But due to existence of hierarchy, the lower also depend the higher to create some issues for their development of their organization. So, the impact of it is less development on achieving goals of an organization.
Introduction of dictatorship. Due to existence of hierarchy system of leadership, the top leaders have a power to rule as a dictator. This is happen when a leaders undermine right of peoples or workers within an organization territories. Examples of this right being undermined are freedom of expression, movement and involving in various meetings.
Also people are not treat equally and peoples ideas are not listen.
Delayment of information. In any organization which characterized by fully bureaucratic have a tendency of passing information from either top to down or down to top. Mean from top leader to lowest leaders or workers, and also from lower to highest leaders of an organization. Some time it known by the name of “chain of command” (Ludwing Von Mises, 1944). This is used much in military camps where information pass from private (Pc) to Brigadier through chain. The impact of it is lacking to get information very faster if there is necessary information.
Little knowledge to the highest leader. Most of leaders within hierarchy depend much on orders whereby the lowest leaders require to work instead of general executive officers. The information which would be collected can be either true or false information. Also, if there is an issues for benefit of an organization rather than workers being investigated, led to bring false information in order to protect their jobs. So, the end of the day the top officers remain with false or wrong information from the lowest hence lack of knowledge how to manage an organization.
Lack of accountability and responsiveness. Due to existence of bureaucracy, some peoples lack accountability and transparence on his/her work in a certain organization. This is mainly done by the top leaders, and the main reasons are that, they use their office against rules and regulation of an organization. And sometimes they push things off. Example, if there is a certain case against top manager of an organization it is easily to receive and responsive of a massage become poor or no response.
CRITICISM
Max Weber is famous scholar who known by the concept of “Bureaucracy”. Even though his work was good but facing with various critics based on the ideas of bureaucracy as follows:-
-Weber fails to distinguish markedly different types and subtypes of highly rationalized bureaucracy (Shankar Rao, 2006).
-The hypothesis which introduced by Max Weber are considered to be more responsible, need more empirical verification and specification before accepted as a specific work.
Max Weber neglected the dysfunctional or the negative aspect of a certain features of modern organization.
-The work of bureaucracy which introduced by Weber’s show it is segregative in nature; based on race, power belonging to few people especially top leaders of an organization hence other people affecting either psychological or physical. Therefore, he failed to elaborate how to help this people or workers within organization who undermined to feel happy as other workers as top leaders.
-Max Weber compared bureaucracy as “ideal type” and the ideal types is something imaginative. It is through mind of people and it is difficult to see bureaucracy. And also, the correction of some of explanatory overviews, it is not historical overviews but details are complex.
RECOMMANDATION
Even though bureaucracy has a lot of problems as mentioned by various scholars including Max Weber, but also has a lot of advantages to the development of an organization. The following are some of advantages of bureaucracy analyzed by Max Weber as shown by Shankar Rao (2006):-
Bureaucracy provide opportunity for division of labour, the modern organization need a millions of workers, and in order to make this workers in a systematic way, it require the application of bureaucracy so as to divide workers regulding their profession. Example of institution having more than million workers is Coca-Cola trading companies.
Performance in complicated tasks, Bureaucracy used in complicated issues such as conducting census, capturing criminals, collecting taxes, and during election.
And also, Shankar Rao ibid (:721), added some such as control the west of time, mobility of resources and their rightful usage, maintenance of laws and order, and lastly is performance of repetive tasks such as industrial corporations, universities, and advertising agencies are always regular work..
CONCLUSION
Bureaucracy is seen most important to the development of organization and state in general. But in order to attain development in any organization should respect ideas and feelings of workers (to give power workers on thinking about organization). So, by doing that, workers will work for their best levels so as to achieve goals of an organization.

CHIWAMBO, AUSI R. TEKU UNIVERSITY :20/12/2011
REFERENCES
Hughes, M. and Kroehhler, J. C. (2008), sociology the core, 7th edition, New York. Mc
Graw Hill Publ.
Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2008), Sociology a global introduction, 4th edition,
London, Pearson Education ltd
Schaefer, R. T. (2008), Sociology a brief introduction, 7th edition, New York, Mc Graw
Hill publ.
Schaefer, R. T. (2008), Sociology matters, 3rd edition, New York, Mc Graw hill Press
Shankar Rao, C. N. (2006), Sociology: principles of sociology with an introduction to
Social thought, New Delhi, Rejendra Revindra and S. Chand ltd.
Saed Kubenea (2011), Mwanahalisi News, Kikwete chupuchupu, ni katika sakata la
Jairo, No. 257, ISSN:1821-5432, Wednesday, August 31st –September 6, 2011.
Ludwig Von Mises (1944), Bureaucracy, New Heaven, Yale University Press
http://www.change.freeuk/learning/socthink/Webercrit.htm. Andrian Worsfold/
03/12/2011:4:46 pm
http://home.insightbb.com/-davidprince/bureaucracy.pdf/28/11/2011:6:55Pm
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucracy,28/11/7:07Pm (last modified 28/11/2011
09:33 by Brandon Harris.
http://www.newworldency.org/enty/Bureaucracy.9.09Pm ,Modified on 3rd April, 2008:18:45.

BY CHIWAMBO AUSI R.

QN: Sociological theory has been shaped with the social context. Discuss the main sociological context you know that have been developed by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and Georg Simmel.

QUESTION: Sociological theory has been shaped with the social context. Discuss the main sociological context you know that have been developed by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and Georg Simmel.

BY CHIWAMBO, AUSI R
TEOFILO KISANJI UNIVERSITY-TANZANIA
20/01/2012

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

-Historical background of sociological theory

-Definition of sociological theories

MAIN BODY

-Sociological context that has developed by:-

KARL MARX
-Social change
-Conflict theory

MAX WEBER
-Rationalization
-Bureaucracy

EMILE DURKHEIM
-Suicide
-Social solidarity

GEORG SIMMEL
-Interactionism
-Phylosophy of money

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

BACKGRAUND
Sociological theories are those modern theories that are based on empirical evident aiming to evaluate social issues within our society for benefit of the present and future time, and it developed by various scholar in the 1800s and 1900s. Examples of scholars who developed these sociological theories are Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Georg Simmel.
Therefore, the following are the definition of sociological theories:-
Sociological theory is defined as a set of interrelated ideas that allows for systematization of knowledge of the social world. This knowledge is used to explain the social world and make prediction about the future of the social world (Robert O. Keel, 2011).
Sociological theory is complex theoretical and methodological frameworks used to analyze and explain object of social study. Examples of sociological theories are conflict theory, critical theory, feminist theory, functionalism theory, and rational choice theory (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/introduction-to-sociological-theory)
Therefore, sociological theory can be defined as a complex theoretical framework that is used to explain social theories through empirical formula (scientific method) and making judgments.
Therefore, it is true that “Sociological theory has been shaped with the social context”. The following are the main sociological contexts that have been developed by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and Georg Simmel:-
KARL MARX
Karl Marx developed social issues such as “conflict theory and social change” as follows:-
CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theory was the theory introduced by Karl Marx in the book “Communist Manifesto”, 1848, (George Ritzer and Douglas J. Googman, 2004c). Conflict theory argues that society is not best understood as a complex system striving for equilibrium but rather as a competition. Society is made up of individuals competing for limited resources. (http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/conflict-theory).
According to Karl Marx (1818-1883), in any societies there are two major social groups: a ruling class and a subject class. The ruling class derives its power from its ownership and control of the forces of production. The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject class (lower class). As a result there is a basic conflict of interest between these two classes.
All in all, conflict theory rose when exploitation of capitalist and existing government being increase to lower class or workers, and the exploitative in order to reduce and removal those kinds off injustice, they require forming movements and overthrowing existing government.
Karl Marx believed that, economic and political analysis of capitalism is the main causes of conflict theory. This is due to forced labour, long working hours, low wages and poor working condition which under capitalism system.
Conflict theory still exist in Tanzania today and shaped our social context as we see in our country now days there are various riots between workers and employer or government vases Hawkers (in Swahili language we call “wamachinga”) in the city like Mwanza, Arusha, and Mbeya.
SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change it is essential feature of capitalism which existing all over the world. Under this system, the means of production and distributing goods such as land, factory technology, and transport system are owned by a small minority of people, we refer this group of people as the capitalist class.
Functionalist social theory tends to regard these economic activities as mundane necessity to support cultural that depend upon it. Karl Mark believes that all society which was under communist one the production of goods was structured on the way that to produce great benefit for minority. Through this theory we can use it to understand how capitalism leads to social change up to this present and how people are exploited under capitalism.

MAX WEBER
Max Weber explained about “rationalization, and social solidarity”. All this two explained as follow:-
RATIONALIZATION
Rationalization is the term used in sociology to refer to the process in which an increasing number of social actions become based on considerations of teleological efficiency or calculation (clarification needed) rather than on motivation divided from morality, emotion, custom or tradition. Many sociologists regard it as a central aspect of modernity, manifested especially in western society as a behavior or the capitalist market of ration administration in the state and bureaucracy.
The rationally com from Weber’s ideas, during his work. Weber tries to explain about the rationalization with the consideration of three categories such as bureaucracy, religion, and society. Because these things found and be applied by human being every day in their life. Due to rationalization is among of social context, means something used in our society today Weber used rationalization to explain thee types of legitimate authority in the society. In this Weber described legitimate as “the publicly reasons for obeying or complaining with the command issue from the authority”.
In tradition authority, Weber explains how power generated in tradition authority. This is where as legal system from the legitimacy of the rational legal system. Tradition authority is based on a claim by the leaders, and belief on the part of the following; these explain how pennon can create followers as tradition leader on the society. Also in our society there are good examples of traditional leader like chief Mkwawa through, he has enough ability to mobilize people and except he said, and this traditional authority can be rule by elders or inherit positions.
Charismatic authority; this is the concept that is come to be used every broadly (Sakes, 1997; Werbner and Basu, 1998). The person who has ordinary supernatural power,; means that someone who can be respected and his/her power to control people in the society.
In this, there is no need to find thus supernatural power found. But its automatically happen (spontaneously) to any person. In our society today and pass through history and best events there are sample this charismatic issues like J. K. Nyerere in Tanzania, also there is somebody known as Mwanamarundi in Mwanza Tanzania.
BUREAUCRACY
The theory of bureaucracy was founded by Max Weber a Germany sociologist (1864-1920). Weber intention was to describe features of an ideal (model) organizations or formal structure that could facilitate conduct of official activities (business) efficiently and effectively with higher degree of rationality.
According to Weber’s bureaucracy is a normal way that legal rational authority appears in constitutional form (organized way), it plays central role in ordering and controlling modern organizations. He meant a construct or mode that service as a measuring rod against with actual cases can be evaluated. Weber proposed that whether at his purpose it is to run a church, a corporation or any army that the ideal can be applied.
Weber studying bureaucracy as a power, he reflects type of power and authority which figures our society today. By studying Weber’s theory of bureaucracy we can understand better why in today’s society contain people hold more or high authority than others.
EMILE DURKHEIM
Emile Durkheim was discussed two social context such as “suicide and social solidarity”. This are:-
SUICIDE
Suicide is the act or instance of killing one self, and that can be in internationally level or within a country. This theory was developed by Emile Durkheim. He founded that lack of social integration, group involvement and collective consciousness as the reasons for high suicide in the mid of 18th century up to 19th century.
But the reasons highlighted by Durkheim as the causes of suicide are even applicable in modern society. And the people who commit suicide in high rate is unmarriage compared to marriage one as we see now days. According to Durkheim analyzed three types of suicide such as anomie suicide, egoistic suicide and anomie suicide. Particular in Palestine, Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia, and Nigeria are the examples of people who commit suicide for high rate in today, this is due to excessive degree of group integration now days. Also today we see people committing suicide due to the fact they fail to fulfill their ambition.
SOCIAL SOLIDARITY
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was the most prominent French sociologist of 19th century. He was erudite scholar, great thinker, who comes up with the theory of solidarity. Social solidarity refers to the integration and degree or type of the integration manifest by society group. The bases of social solidarity are different and complex societies. He made a comparison between the primitive and the civilized by “mechanical solidarity based on the conscience collective” and the advanced society is characterized by organic solidarity based on the division of labour.
As defined by Durkheim, mechanical solidarity refers to social solidarity based upon homogeneity of value and behavior. Strong social constraint, and loyalty to tradition and kinship while social solidarity refers to the types of societal solidarity typically in modern industrial society, in which unity is based on the interdependence of every larger number of high specialized roles in the system involving a complex division of labour that require the cooperation of almost all group and individual of the society.
This theory is still applicable until now in the society, this is due to the fact that individual in the society has similarities, people do not differ much. Also solidarity is highly needed in the society because it encourages development.
GEORG SIMMEL
Georg Simmel introduced two ideas such as “symbolic interactions” and “the philosophy of money”. George Simmel explained as follows:-
SYMBOLIC INTERACTION
The idea of symbolic interaction was introduced by Georg Simmel (1859-1918), shown by George Ritzer and Douglas J. Googman, (2004c) in the book Sociological Theory. Simmel explained interactions in form of political, economic, religion, and sexual behavior. Simmel considered society to be an association of free individuals and said that it could not be studied in the same way as the physical world. Simmel also continued to say “society is made up of the interactions between and among individuals, and the sociologist should study the parttens and form of these association rather than request after social law (Farganis, 1993:133).
This statement emphasis on social interaction at the individual and small level, and viewing the study of these interactions are the primary task. Georg Simmel explained idea of interaction by emphasis from individual levels (smallest level of interaction) to largest level of institution. Example of small interaction can be group of dyads (consist of only two people) or tried (consist of only three members), and large scale interaction are like institution.
This theory is applicable even today in our family and working place. The interactions of workers from various organizations help them to exchange ideas, and then they have ability implement it in their organization, hence increase of production and services. Therefore, through interaction an individual can champion some changes based on positive way which can lead to increase levels of development in the society. This interaction can be the people of one culture and another culture, organization and organization, blacks and white people, or can be either student from various schools.
THE PHYLOSOPHY OF MONEY
“The philosophy of money” was the book and theory of money which was written by Georg Simmel (1859-1918), shown by George Ritzer and Douglas J. Googman, (2004c). Philosophy of money stand as an idea developed by him emphasis on money, and its important and consequence to the society all over the world.
In this book, Simmel is concerned with money as a symbol, and what some of the effects of this are for people and society. In modern society, money becomes an impersonal or objectified measure of value. This implies impersonal, rational ties among people that are institutionalized in the money form.
For example, relations of domination and subordination become quantitative relationships of more and less money (impersonal and measurable in a rational manner). The use of money distances individuals from objects and also provides the means of overcoming this distance. The use of money allows much greater flexibility for individuals in society (to travel greater distances and to overcome person-to-person limitations.)
Simmel thus suggests that “the spread of the money form gives individuals a freedom of sorts by permitting them to exercise the kind of individualized control over "impression management" that was not possible in traditional societies. ... Ascribed identities have been discarded. Even strangers become familiar and knowable identities insofar as they are willing to use a common but impersonal means of exchange”. (Ashley and Orenstein, 1990:326)
At the same time, personal identity becomes problematic, so that development of the money form has both positive and negative consequences. That is, individual freedom is potentially increased greatly, but there are problems of alienation, fragmentation, and identity construction.
Simmel concluded that, “a society in which money becomes an end, in itself can cause individuals to become increasingly cynical and to have the blasé attitude,( George Ritzer and Douglas J. Googman, 2004c).
By relating in our society we live today, a person who have money become the controller of the system production such as industrial, and medias like Newspaper and television. Examples is Regnand Mengi in Tanzania own more than one media (such as Capital television, Chanel 5, ITV Daima, and Newspaper including The Guardian and Nipashe) and factories or industry including Bonite Bottles industry dealing with production of drinks, present in Moshi-Kilimanjaro region.
CONCLUSION
The sociological theories are most important because it explained reality of our lives in modern societies and try to come with the solution of the phenomena or problem which arose in the society. Also it leads us to learn the earliest peoples who succeeded in such phenomena by follow their ways of succession.

REFERENCES
Farganis, J.(1993), Readings in Social Theory: the Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism
New York, McGraw-Hill,
Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2008), Sociology “A Global Introduction”, 4th Edition,
London, Pearson Education Limited.
Ritzer, G. and Goodman, J. D. (2004c), Sociological Theory, 6th Edition, University of
Maryland & Puget Sound, McGraw Hill Publisher
Schaefer, R. T. (2008), sociology Matters, 3rd Edition, New York, McGraw Hill Pub.
Shankar Rao, C. N. (2006),Sociology: a principles of sociology with an introduction to
Social thought, 6th Edition, Indian university, Rejendra Ravindra and S. Chand
Press.
McGree, R. J. and Warms, R. L. (2004), Anthropological Theory; an introductory history,
3rd Edition, Southwest Taxas State University, McGraw Hill Press
Bilton, T., Bonnett, K.,Jones, P, Lawson, T., Skinner, D.,Stanworth, M.,and Wedster, A.
(2002), Introductory Sociology, 4th Edition, New York, Palgrave Macmillan Press
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sociological-theory/30/12/2011/1:42Pm
Knapp, P., (1992) One World -- Many Worlds: Contemporary Sociological Theory
New York,Harper-Collins.
Ritzer, and George, (1992) Sociological Theory, third edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.

QN. With examples, argue on consumer behavior and household economic fertility. the theory is rerelant to our society especially the third world countries?

DEFINITION OF THE KEY CONCEPT

Theory is a statement or statement of how and why specific facts are related (Macionis, 1997:15).

Zerihun Doda (2005), defined theory as a set of interconnected hypotheses that offer general explanations for natural or social phenomena.

Generally, Theory is the statement that explain a certain phenomena and that statement have its outcome to our society.

Shankar Rao, (2006), quoted some definition of society from different scholars as follow:-

A society is a collection of individual united by certain relation or model of behavior that make them off from others who do not inter into these relation or who differ from them in behavior (Morris Ginsberg,)

A society refers not to a group of people, but to the complex pattern of interaction, that arise among and between them (Lapiere)

Michael Hughes and Kloehler (2005), define society as a group who live a some territory and share a common culture.

Macionis J. J. and Plummer K. (2008), defined society as the people who interrupt and defined space and share culture.

Generally, society can be defined as a group of people living together within a territory under a leader and perfume various activities together with culture.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

The theory of consumer behavior attempts to put into consideration or cover consumers of goods and services and how they generally behave before, during or after the buying process and as such some common terms to explain the whole process, (http://kenyaentrepreneur.hubpages.com/hub/Consumer-Behavior-Theory).

Consumer Behavior is how consumers allocate their money incomes among goods and services,(http://welkerswikinomics.wetpaint.com/page/Theory+of+Consumer+Behavior).

Consumer behavior is the study of when, why, how, and where people do or do not buy a product. It blends elements from psychology, sociology, social anthropology and economics. It attempts to understand the buyer decision making process, both individually and in groups. It studies characteristics of individual consumers such as demographics and behavioral variables in an attempt to understand people's wants. It also tries to assess influences on the consumer from groups such as family, friends, reference groups, and society in general,

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_behaviour).

There are three steps to understand consumer behavior. These are:-

First step is to examine consumer preferences (easier said than done). For practical purposes this just means what a consumer would theoretical prefer absent price, secondly, face budget constraints that restrict the quantities of goods on services that can be consumed, and lastly to put consumer preferences and budget constraints together to determine choices. This assuming that people maximize their satisfaction by combining a set of goods and services, (Rafael Gomez, 2003). Generally consumer behavior attempt to base on Rational behavior, preferences, budget constraint, price and income.

The Rational behavior of consumers is that ; Money is no doubt what consumers use to buy goods and services they need and in reality it’s scarce in nature and a person may not have enough of it at any given time. Due to this scarcity of money consumers tend to be rational in their purchasing decisions.

A consumer would spend his money on the best possible place or product that guarantees him utility or a sense of satisfaction. The rational behavior of consumer also means that buyers only purchase goods and services only when needed rather than wasting money on things that have no immediate use as of now. The consumer or buyer will do all he can, to get the most out of the little money he has in possession in such a way that he feels satisfied about what his money has purchased for him.

In a market there is demand as well as supply. Excess demand for goods means a reduction of goods and services available in the market and hence an increase in the price levels. The opposite is also true if the demand is low. The consumers have little income or money in possession and hence should only make their purchase decisions on the strength of their wallets. In this case the consumer’s demand for the more expensive products tends to be lower and this may lead to fall in prices as a measure to counter the low levels of demand. When prices fall consumers are willing to purchase the products.

HOUSEHOLD ECONOMIC FERTILITY

The household economic fertility looks at demand as a function of income, prices, and tastes. From the perspective of the home production framework, the positive relationship between life expectancy and economic well-being suggests that survival is a normal commodity, example as incomes rise, people have a higher demand for (and realization of) survival, (http://www.econ.psu.edu/~dshapiro/463ib.htm).

Economic theories of fertility assume that parents have the number of children they do because they desire approximately that number, given the cost of birth control. This demand for children at a household level is affected by many socio-economic factors such as the level of human capital of family members, family income and assists and the experience on the child mortality, (http://voices.yahoo.com/theories-fertility-491702.html?cat=72).

The economic model of the household has three central features as follows; firstly, the household welfare function, describing how the household decision makers value the outcome the allocation of household resources, secondly, the household technology, describing how income allocations-goods and time –affect outcomes valued by the house hold such as health, earnings potential, and clean house. And lastly, the household budget constraint, describing the total resources of time and goods the household can command, (Beatrice Lorge Rogers and Nina P. Schlossman, 1983).

Therefore, the relationship between between household or individual inputs, person specific characteristics, and the human capital for each family member is by the production function.

The theory proposes that fertility decisions in all societies are economically rational responses to familial wealth flows. In society with net upward wealth flows, the economically rational decision is to have as many surviving children as possible (within the constraints imposed by biology), because each additional child adds positively old age, and social and political wellbeing.

In societies with net downward wealth flows, the economically rational decision is to have no children or the minimum number allowed by a psychological desponsition that derives from children and parenting. The worldwide transition from high to low fertility is the result of a change in family structures from upward to downward wealth flows, (Caldwell, 1980).

HOW THE THEORY RELEVANT IN OUR CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY ESPECIALLY THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES.

The following are how the theories are relevant in our contemporary societies especially The Third World Countries:-

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

The most obvious is for marketing strategy, example for making better marketing campaigns. For example, by understanding that consumers are more receptive to food advertising when they are hungry, we learn to schedule snack advertisements late in the afternoon. By understanding that new products are usually initially adopted by a few consumers and only spread later, and then only gradually, to the rest of the population, we learn that firstly, companies that introduce new products must be well financed so that they can stay afloat until their products become a commercial success and secondly, it is important to please initial customers, since they will in turn influence many subsequent customers’ brand choices, (http://www.consumerpsychologist.com).

Consumer theory is applicable in our society in three contexts such as price, budget, prices of services or goods and consumer preferences. Also it affected with demand and supply. Consumer refers to the quantity of goods and services that consumer are willing and able to buy at a given prices at a specific period of time. For example when a commodity is high, the price is low and also if the commodities are low the price is high. This is what happening in our society, when the price of substitute’s goods “A” (for example coffee) is high a buyer may change kind of substitutes goods need to buy may change to use goods “B” (example is tea).

Also consumer behavior is applicable in budget as follows; when a person or a certain family have low income or high income, this people usually base on their budget so as to protect the use of money for a specific reasons. Some time because of family needs, a person may decide to have few numbers of children so as to control their budget.

HOUSEHOLD ECONOMIC FERTILITY

The household economic fertility is applicable in our society in the following ways; within a family a parent may decide to have any number of children, but these people they invest on children as a source of income for the future. The family planning reaching a point to have children, and thereafter growing of these children, when they involve on economic activities they tend to increase income of the family. In Africa some people they still believing that, to have many children help to have source of labour within a family which led to increase production. Therefore, the theory seeing as applicable in our society through that ways.

CONCLUSION

All these two theories base on population and how the society being affected by economics and needs of the society as whole. The societies is affecting by budgeting, price and preferences. On the consumer behavior a person may affected by the preferences of goods or services where a person may decide to by on not a certain services or goods. Also in economic household people may be affected the number of people they need so as to increase the income of the children either throw labor or security during old age.

REFERENCES

Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2008), Sociology “A Global Introduction”, 4^th Edition,

London, Pearson Education Limited.

Zerihun Doda (2005), Introduction To Social Cultural Anthropology, Debub University,

EPHT (Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative) Press

Shankar Rao, C. N. (2006),Sociology; a principle of sociology with an introduction to

Social thought, 6^th edition, Indian University, Rejend Raindra Press.

http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/26-04-2012/6.37AM

http://kenyaentrepreneur.hubpages.com/hub/Consumer-Behavior-Theory/26-04-2012/6.50AM

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_behaviour/26-04-2012/6.26AM

http://smallbusiness.chron.com/relevant-marketing-consumer-behavior-theories-20800.html/26-04-2012/6.33AM

http://www.econ.psu.edu/~dshapiro/463ib.htm

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2842562/

http://welkerswikinomics.wetpaint.com/page/Theory+of+Consumer+Behavior/26-04-2012/6.30AM

http://voices.yahoo.com/theories-fertility-491702.html?cat=72

DISCUSSION QN

Pages

Monday, December 31, 2012

QUESTION:- What is implies in the following terms? Resident, patient, therapist, helper, and customer.

Sally Wehmeier (Author), A. S. Hornby (Editor), January 2000, Oxford Advanced

Learner's Dict (Dictionary, six edition. Oxford University Press

QUESTION: Explain the theory of neo-evolutionism and functionalism in cultural anthropology.

QUESTION: Explain the theory of neo-evolutionism and functionalism in cultural anthropology.

Question. What are the similarities and different between Nuclear family and Extended family?

QN. Society and culture are twins sisters. Discuss

QN. Society and culture are twins sisters. Discuss

QN. What are the problem of Bureaucracy?

QN: Sociological theory has been shaped with the social context. Discuss the main sociological context you know that have been developed by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and Georg Simmel.

QN: Sociological theory has been shaped with the social context. Discuss the main sociological context you know that have been developed by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and Georg Simmel.

QN. With examples, argue on consumer behavior and household economic fertility. the theory is rerelant to our society especially the third world countries?

QN. With examples, argue on consumer behavior and household economic fertility. the theory is rerelant to our society especially the third world countries?