QUESTION: Explain the theory of neo-evolutionism and functionalism in cultural anthropology.
NAMES OF WRITERS
1. CHIWAMBO AUSI R.
2. SAMSONI ROSE
3. BOGOYA ALLY
4. MNYAMISI AKIDA S.
QUESTION: Explain the theory of neo-evolutionism and functionalism in cultural anthropology.
DATE OF SUBMISION: 16/12/2011
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
-Meaning of cultural anthropology
MAIN BODY
-Neo-evolutionism theory
.criticism
-Functionalism theory
.criticism
CONCLUTION
DEFINITION OF CULTURA ANTHROPOLOGY
Cultural anthropology is the study of human culture, their believes, practices, values, ideas, technology, economics, and other domains of social and cognitive organization. This field is based primarily on culture understanding gained through first hand experience, a participant observation within living population of humans (http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture )
Cultural anthropology is the branch of anthropology focused on the study of culture variation among humans, collection data about the impact of the global economy and political process on local cultural realities. The anthropologist use the variety of methods, including participant observation, interview and surveys (http://www.answers.com/topic/acultural-anthropology )
Therefore, cultural anthropology defined as a study of human culture based on ethnology and ethnography through observation participant, experience as well as survey. when we say culture we includes beliefs, values, ideas, norms, tradition and customs. Ethnography means studying differences and similarities of contemporary culture, and ethnology means studying culture in detail or features.
NEO EVOLUTIONISM
Neo evolutionism is a social theory that tries to explain the evolution of society that introduced by Charles Darwin’s and later developed by Herbert Spencer. The name "neo-evolutionism" implies that this is something new, which is somewhat misleading.
Some neo-evolutionists rejected this term and called their science "plain old evolutionism" - and so it was! (Sahlins and Service 1960, p. 4). The tradition from Spencer and Tylor was continued without much novel thinking. The neo-evolutionists focused on describing the evolution of societies through a number of stages, finding similarities between parallel evolutionary processes, and finding a common formula for the direction of evolution.
One important difference from nineteenth century evolutionism was that the laws of biological inheritance now were known to everyone. No one could carry on with confusing genetic and social inheritance, and a clear distinction was drawn between racial and social evolution. Theories were no longer racist, and the old social Darwinism was rejected.
Whereas genetic inheritance can only go from parent to child, the cultural heritage can be transmitted in all directions, even between unrelated peoples. The neo-evolutionists therefore found diffusion important. They realized that a culture can die without the people carrying that culture being extinguished. In other words, the cultural evolution does not, unlike the genetic evolution, depend on the birth and death of individuals (Childe 1951).
Neo evolutionism emerged in 1930’s where based on empirical evidence (through conducting research), but previously evolution used as a value judgments and assumptions for interpreting data, and neo evolutionism also it is modern matrilineal evolutionary theory (Julius and Steward, 1955).
Neo evolutionism developed intensively in the period after the second world and was incorporated into anthropology as well as sociology in 1960’s. Also this theory basing on empirical evidence from the field such as archeology, paleontology, and historiography (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=neo-evolutionism )
Scholar who explained the concept of neo evolutionism are Ferdinand Tonnies, Leslic A. White (1900-1975), Lewis Henry Morgan, George Peter Murdock (1897-1975), Nikolai Kardashev (Russian), and Julian Steward (1902-1972); who introduced the theory of culture: The methodology of matrilineal evolution, 1955 and printed 1979.
According to Steward (1955), he added that, neo evolutionism is also the way in which societies adapted their environment in the some way. This can be through examination of specific resources which a society exploits, the technology used to exploit resources and organization of human labour. This was argued by White (1900-1975).
This was introduced by White (1900-1975), through his formula which stare that “C=E*T or P=E*T. According to him ‘C’ stand for Culture, ‘E’ means measures of energy consumed, and ‘T’ means measure of efficiency of technical factors. Or simply Culture=Energy * Technology. This is being practiced when a person applying knowledge and technology have so as to achieve its goals based on culture.
Further more he argued that, different environments and technology would acquire different kind of adaptations, based on culture. And that culture never change in some inner logic but the society change according to environment. He introduced examples of this culture is common culture of a certain region. Examples of common culture are language, religious, education and marriage.
Gerhard Lenski in neo evolutionism introduced four stages of human progress or development based on culture through advancing history of communication. This are
1. Information passed through genes. It mean a person inherit genes from parent biologically.
2. Senteince. This means capacity of feelings, or sense. When a person gained senteince, they can learn and pass information through experience.
3. human state using signs and develop the logic. Sign interpret information. This can be gesture, posture, facial expression and physical appearances.
4. Symbols creations. This is based on language and writing.
And that stage develops into economic system, social and political system. Therefore through these stages, a person can think what thing to follow within a certain culture.
CRITICISM
Neo evolutionism theory through those scholar explained above based on how culture champion development but failure to explain how one society being above in terms of development rather than other by using the same element of culture.
Neo-evolutionists used more energy on studying the course and direction of evolution than its fundamental mechanisms.
Both scholars repeating the three elements in Darwin's general formula: variation, selection, and reproduction, without going into detail.
Neo evolutionism, there was surprisingly little attention to the process of selection. Hardly anyone cared to define the criteria that determined, which features were promoted by the cultural selection, and which were weeded out. They were satisfied with the general criterion: survival value. Still the tautology is haunting! Without the selection criterion they also missed any argument why the evolution should go in the claimed direction.
There was also certain confusion over what the unit of selection was. Was it customs, which were selected, or was it the people bearing them? Or was it entire societies that were the objects of the selection process?
FUNCTIONALISM THEOTY
Functionalism is the broad perspective in sociology and anthropology which sets out interpret a society as a structure with interrelated parts (http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-structure ).
In short the theory of functionalism regard culture as an integrated whole and tries to explain how the relationship among the part of society are created and how that this part are functional (meaning having beneficial consequences to the individual and society) and dysfunction (meaning having negative consequences). This is according to Howard and Dunaif Hattis (1992).
The functionalism theory sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. So, this means our social lives guided by structure which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior (Macionis, 1997).
According to anthropologists Radchiff Brown and Bronslaw Malinowki, explain the functionalism in two contexts which are structure structural functionalism and psychological functionalism.
Structural functionalism stresses the characteristics of society and its structure over the individuals, and how the various elements of social structure function to remain social order and equilibrium (to make society as equal). And psychological functionalism stress individual need to be met by society.
Generally, functionalism addresses society as whole in terms of function of its constituents elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), explained that, the society work as “organs” that work toward the proper functioning of the body as whole. According to him, compared society work as like organs of human being such as brains, hearts and other parts of body works. Example is that, government depending much on citizens and citizens depend on government.
Alfred Redcliffe Brown, explained that, the doctrine of functionalism states that all cultural straight arise as a human adaptations to survive in a certain environments. So, any straight can be analyzed to find the function related to survival of the individual or society.
When explained survival needs expressed in three contexts such as:-
1. Individual, whereby culture must meet the survival need of the individual and of the society. These needs of individual are method for getting food, tools, and safety, relation to other human and medical needs.
2. Society. The needs of society are reproduction, protection, and distribution of resources and maintenance of order.
3. Institution. This is to accomplish need of both individual and society culture, generally have a certain institution such as kinship, government, laws, economy and religion.
So, culture must motivate human survive, and culture must provide humans with a meaning in life at some level that wills them to put the effort into survival. Therefore, without the fundamental motivation, women would not perform the work needed to continue their existence and the culture would become extinct (no longer existing).
CRITICISM
The weakness of functionalist theory has that, it failed to explain why society different or similar.
The theory also unable to explain social and cultural change, as it viewed society as stable and unchanging.
Functionalism failed to achieve its ambition of building society as egalitarian. This was argued by Karl Max (1918-1983) who said “the only way through which capitalist can gain super profit is to insure intensive exploitation of workers and not otherwise”
This was in the conference of Vienna Austria, (1840’s). So, is how happening today within the era of imperialist whereby the system increase gap between they have and they have not.
CONCLUTION
All this two theory come to answer the question of why. And as a human being we need to apply it in order to solve problem affecting us in a certain period of time. And that problem should being solved through empirical evidence which involving conducting research. So, by doing that people would work as organs.
REFERENCES
Elvio Angeloni (2008), Classic Edition Sources : Anthropology, New York, Mc Graw
Hill Press.
Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: the exploration of human diversity, 10th Edition,
New York, Mc Graw Hill Press.
McGree, R. J. and Warms, R. L. (2004), Anthropological Theory; an introductory history,
3rd Edition, Southwest Taxas State University, Mc Graw Hill Press
Zerihun Doda (2005), Introduction To Social Cultural Anthropology, Debub University,
EPHT (Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative) Press
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-cultural-evolution#sociobiology/12/12/2011:
00:42 Am
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/structural-functionism/12/12/2011/6:58Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB-cultural-anthropology/the-nature-of-culture/functionalism/12/12/2011/8:52Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture/28/11/2011/5:17Pm
http://www.utpa.edu/fuculty/mglazer/theory/functionalism.htm/12/12/2011/7:09Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture/12/12/2011/8:52Pm
http://www.answers.com/topic/acultural-anthropology/12/12/2011/8:54Pm
1. CHIWAMBO AUSI R.
2. SAMSONI ROSE
3. BOGOYA ALLY
4. MNYAMISI AKIDA S.
QUESTION: Explain the theory of neo-evolutionism and functionalism in cultural anthropology.
DATE OF SUBMISION: 16/12/2011
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
-Meaning of cultural anthropology
MAIN BODY
-Neo-evolutionism theory
.criticism
-Functionalism theory
.criticism
CONCLUTION
DEFINITION OF CULTURA ANTHROPOLOGY
Cultural anthropology is the study of human culture, their believes, practices, values, ideas, technology, economics, and other domains of social and cognitive organization. This field is based primarily on culture understanding gained through first hand experience, a participant observation within living population of humans (http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture )
Cultural anthropology is the branch of anthropology focused on the study of culture variation among humans, collection data about the impact of the global economy and political process on local cultural realities. The anthropologist use the variety of methods, including participant observation, interview and surveys (http://www.answers.com/topic/acultural-anthropology )
Therefore, cultural anthropology defined as a study of human culture based on ethnology and ethnography through observation participant, experience as well as survey. when we say culture we includes beliefs, values, ideas, norms, tradition and customs. Ethnography means studying differences and similarities of contemporary culture, and ethnology means studying culture in detail or features.
NEO EVOLUTIONISM
Neo evolutionism is a social theory that tries to explain the evolution of society that introduced by Charles Darwin’s and later developed by Herbert Spencer. The name "neo-evolutionism" implies that this is something new, which is somewhat misleading.
Some neo-evolutionists rejected this term and called their science "plain old evolutionism" - and so it was! (Sahlins and Service 1960, p. 4). The tradition from Spencer and Tylor was continued without much novel thinking. The neo-evolutionists focused on describing the evolution of societies through a number of stages, finding similarities between parallel evolutionary processes, and finding a common formula for the direction of evolution.
One important difference from nineteenth century evolutionism was that the laws of biological inheritance now were known to everyone. No one could carry on with confusing genetic and social inheritance, and a clear distinction was drawn between racial and social evolution. Theories were no longer racist, and the old social Darwinism was rejected.
Whereas genetic inheritance can only go from parent to child, the cultural heritage can be transmitted in all directions, even between unrelated peoples. The neo-evolutionists therefore found diffusion important. They realized that a culture can die without the people carrying that culture being extinguished. In other words, the cultural evolution does not, unlike the genetic evolution, depend on the birth and death of individuals (Childe 1951).
Neo evolutionism emerged in 1930’s where based on empirical evidence (through conducting research), but previously evolution used as a value judgments and assumptions for interpreting data, and neo evolutionism also it is modern matrilineal evolutionary theory (Julius and Steward, 1955).
Neo evolutionism developed intensively in the period after the second world and was incorporated into anthropology as well as sociology in 1960’s. Also this theory basing on empirical evidence from the field such as archeology, paleontology, and historiography (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=neo-evolutionism )
Scholar who explained the concept of neo evolutionism are Ferdinand Tonnies, Leslic A. White (1900-1975), Lewis Henry Morgan, George Peter Murdock (1897-1975), Nikolai Kardashev (Russian), and Julian Steward (1902-1972); who introduced the theory of culture: The methodology of matrilineal evolution, 1955 and printed 1979.
According to Steward (1955), he added that, neo evolutionism is also the way in which societies adapted their environment in the some way. This can be through examination of specific resources which a society exploits, the technology used to exploit resources and organization of human labour. This was argued by White (1900-1975).
This was introduced by White (1900-1975), through his formula which stare that “C=E*T or P=E*T. According to him ‘C’ stand for Culture, ‘E’ means measures of energy consumed, and ‘T’ means measure of efficiency of technical factors. Or simply Culture=Energy * Technology. This is being practiced when a person applying knowledge and technology have so as to achieve its goals based on culture.
Further more he argued that, different environments and technology would acquire different kind of adaptations, based on culture. And that culture never change in some inner logic but the society change according to environment. He introduced examples of this culture is common culture of a certain region. Examples of common culture are language, religious, education and marriage.
Gerhard Lenski in neo evolutionism introduced four stages of human progress or development based on culture through advancing history of communication. This are
1. Information passed through genes. It mean a person inherit genes from parent biologically.
2. Senteince. This means capacity of feelings, or sense. When a person gained senteince, they can learn and pass information through experience.
3. human state using signs and develop the logic. Sign interpret information. This can be gesture, posture, facial expression and physical appearances.
4. Symbols creations. This is based on language and writing.
And that stage develops into economic system, social and political system. Therefore through these stages, a person can think what thing to follow within a certain culture.
CRITICISM
Neo evolutionism theory through those scholar explained above based on how culture champion development but failure to explain how one society being above in terms of development rather than other by using the same element of culture.
Neo-evolutionists used more energy on studying the course and direction of evolution than its fundamental mechanisms.
Both scholars repeating the three elements in Darwin's general formula: variation, selection, and reproduction, without going into detail.
Neo evolutionism, there was surprisingly little attention to the process of selection. Hardly anyone cared to define the criteria that determined, which features were promoted by the cultural selection, and which were weeded out. They were satisfied with the general criterion: survival value. Still the tautology is haunting! Without the selection criterion they also missed any argument why the evolution should go in the claimed direction.
There was also certain confusion over what the unit of selection was. Was it customs, which were selected, or was it the people bearing them? Or was it entire societies that were the objects of the selection process?
FUNCTIONALISM THEOTY
Functionalism is the broad perspective in sociology and anthropology which sets out interpret a society as a structure with interrelated parts (http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-structure ).
In short the theory of functionalism regard culture as an integrated whole and tries to explain how the relationship among the part of society are created and how that this part are functional (meaning having beneficial consequences to the individual and society) and dysfunction (meaning having negative consequences). This is according to Howard and Dunaif Hattis (1992).
The functionalism theory sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. So, this means our social lives guided by structure which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior (Macionis, 1997).
According to anthropologists Radchiff Brown and Bronslaw Malinowki, explain the functionalism in two contexts which are structure structural functionalism and psychological functionalism.
Structural functionalism stresses the characteristics of society and its structure over the individuals, and how the various elements of social structure function to remain social order and equilibrium (to make society as equal). And psychological functionalism stress individual need to be met by society.
Generally, functionalism addresses society as whole in terms of function of its constituents elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), explained that, the society work as “organs” that work toward the proper functioning of the body as whole. According to him, compared society work as like organs of human being such as brains, hearts and other parts of body works. Example is that, government depending much on citizens and citizens depend on government.
Alfred Redcliffe Brown, explained that, the doctrine of functionalism states that all cultural straight arise as a human adaptations to survive in a certain environments. So, any straight can be analyzed to find the function related to survival of the individual or society.
When explained survival needs expressed in three contexts such as:-
1. Individual, whereby culture must meet the survival need of the individual and of the society. These needs of individual are method for getting food, tools, and safety, relation to other human and medical needs.
2. Society. The needs of society are reproduction, protection, and distribution of resources and maintenance of order.
3. Institution. This is to accomplish need of both individual and society culture, generally have a certain institution such as kinship, government, laws, economy and religion.
So, culture must motivate human survive, and culture must provide humans with a meaning in life at some level that wills them to put the effort into survival. Therefore, without the fundamental motivation, women would not perform the work needed to continue their existence and the culture would become extinct (no longer existing).
CRITICISM
The weakness of functionalist theory has that, it failed to explain why society different or similar.
The theory also unable to explain social and cultural change, as it viewed society as stable and unchanging.
Functionalism failed to achieve its ambition of building society as egalitarian. This was argued by Karl Max (1918-1983) who said “the only way through which capitalist can gain super profit is to insure intensive exploitation of workers and not otherwise”
This was in the conference of Vienna Austria, (1840’s). So, is how happening today within the era of imperialist whereby the system increase gap between they have and they have not.
CONCLUTION
All this two theory come to answer the question of why. And as a human being we need to apply it in order to solve problem affecting us in a certain period of time. And that problem should being solved through empirical evidence which involving conducting research. So, by doing that people would work as organs.
REFERENCES
Elvio Angeloni (2008), Classic Edition Sources : Anthropology, New York, Mc Graw
Hill Press.
Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: the exploration of human diversity, 10th Edition,
New York, Mc Graw Hill Press.
McGree, R. J. and Warms, R. L. (2004), Anthropological Theory; an introductory history,
3rd Edition, Southwest Taxas State University, Mc Graw Hill Press
Zerihun Doda (2005), Introduction To Social Cultural Anthropology, Debub University,
EPHT (Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative) Press
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-cultural-evolution#sociobiology/12/12/2011:
00:42 Am
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/structural-functionism/12/12/2011/6:58Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB-cultural-anthropology/the-nature-of-culture/functionalism/12/12/2011/8:52Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture/28/11/2011/5:17Pm
http://www.utpa.edu/fuculty/mglazer/theory/functionalism.htm/12/12/2011/7:09Pm
http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture/12/12/2011/8:52Pm
http://www.answers.com/topic/acultural-anthropology/12/12/2011/8:54Pm
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