QUESTION: Explain the theory of neo-evolutionism and
functionalism in cultural anthropology.
DATE OF
SUBMISION: 16/12/2011
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
-Meaning of cultural anthropology
MAIN BODY
-Neo-evolutionism theory
.criticism
-Functionalism theory
.criticism
CONCLUTION
DEFINITION OF CULTURA ANTHROPOLOGY
Cultural
anthropology is the study of human culture, their believes, practices, values,
ideas, technology, economics, and other domains of social and cognitive
organization. This field is based primarily on culture understanding gained
through first hand experience, a participant observation within living
population of humans (http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/culturalanthropology/introductionsymbol-and-culture
)
Cultural
anthropology is the branch of anthropology focused on the study of culture
variation among humans, collection data about the impact of the global economy and
political process on local cultural realities. The anthropologist use the
variety of methods, including participant observation, interview and surveys (http://www.answers.com/topic/acultural-anthropology
)
Therefore,
cultural anthropology defined as a study of human culture based on ethnology
and ethnography through observation participant, experience as well as survey.
when we say culture we includes beliefs, values, ideas, norms, tradition and
customs. Ethnography means studying differences and similarities of
contemporary culture, and ethnology means studying culture in detail or
features.
NEO EVOLUTIONISM
Neo evolutionism is a social
theory that tries to explain the evolution of society that introduced by
Charles Darwin’s and later developed by Herbert Spencer. The name "neo-evolutionism" implies that
this is something new, which is somewhat misleading.
Some neo-evolutionists rejected this term and
called their science "plain old
evolutionism" - and so it was! (Sahlins and Service 1960, p. 4).
The tradition from Spencer and Tylor was continued without much novel thinking.
The neo-evolutionists focused on describing the evolution of societies through
a number of stages, finding similarities between parallel evolutionary
processes, and finding a common formula for the direction of evolution.
One important difference from
nineteenth century evolutionism was that the laws of biological inheritance now
were known to everyone. No one could carry on with confusing genetic and social
inheritance, and a clear distinction was drawn between racial and social
evolution. Theories were no longer racist, and the old social Darwinism was
rejected.
Whereas genetic inheritance can
only go from parent to child, the cultural heritage can be transmitted in all
directions, even between unrelated peoples. The neo-evolutionists therefore
found diffusion important. They
realized that a culture can die without the people carrying that culture being
extinguished. In other words, the cultural evolution does not, unlike the
genetic evolution, depend on the birth and death of individuals (Childe 1951).
Neo evolutionism emerged in 1930’s where based on empirical
evidence (through conducting research), but previously evolution used as a
value judgments and assumptions for interpreting data, and neo evolutionism
also it is modern matrilineal evolutionary theory (Julius and Steward, 1955).
Neo evolutionism developed intensively in the period after the
second world and was incorporated into anthropology as well as sociology in
1960’s. Also this theory basing on empirical evidence from the field such as
archeology, paleontology, and historiography (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=neo-evolutionism
)
Scholar who explained the
concept of neo evolutionism are Ferdinand Tonnies, Leslic A. White (1900-1975),
Lewis Henry Morgan, George Peter Murdock (1897-1975), Nikolai Kardashev (Russian),
and Julian Steward (1902-1972); who introduced the theory of culture: The
methodology of matrilineal evolution, 1955 and printed 1979.
According to Steward (1955), he
added that, neo evolutionism is also
the way in which societies adapted their environment in the some way. This can
be through examination of specific resources which a society exploits, the
technology used to exploit resources and organization of human labour. This was
argued by White (1900-1975).
This was introduced by White
(1900-1975), through his formula which stare that “C=E*T or P=E*T. According
to him ‘C’ stand for Culture, ‘E’ means measures of energy consumed, and ‘T’
means measure of efficiency of technical factors. Or simply Culture=Energy *
Technology. This is being practiced when a person applying knowledge and
technology have so as to achieve its goals based on culture.
Further more he argued that,
different environments and technology would acquire different kind of
adaptations, based on culture. And that culture never change in some inner
logic but the society change according to environment. He introduced examples
of this culture is common culture of a certain region. Examples of common
culture are language, religious, education and marriage.
Gerhard Lenski in neo
evolutionism introduced four stages of human progress or development based on
culture through advancing history of communication. This are
1.
Information passed through genes. It mean a person
inherit genes from parent biologically.
2.
Senteince. This means capacity of feelings, or sense.
When a person gained senteince, they can learn and pass information through
experience.
3.
human state using signs and develop the logic. Sign
interpret information. This can be gesture, posture, facial expression and physical
appearances.
4.
Symbols creations. This is based on language and
writing.
And that stage develops into
economic system, social and political system. Therefore through these stages, a
person can think what thing to follow within a certain culture.
CRITICISM
Neo evolutionism theory through those scholar explained above based
on how culture champion development but failure to explain how one society
being above in terms of development rather than other by using the same element
of culture.
Neo-evolutionists used more
energy on studying the course and direction of evolution than its fundamental
mechanisms.
Both scholars repeating the three elements in Darwin's general formula:
variation, selection, and reproduction, without going into detail.
Neo evolutionism, there was surprisingly little attention to the
process of selection. Hardly anyone cared to define the criteria that
determined, which features were promoted by the cultural selection, and which
were weeded out. They were satisfied with the general criterion: survival
value. Still the tautology is haunting! Without the selection criterion they
also missed any argument why the evolution should go in the claimed direction.
There was also certain confusion
over what the unit of selection
was. Was it customs, which were selected, or was it the people bearing them? Or
was it entire societies that were the objects of the selection process?
FUNCTIONALISM THEOTY
Functionalism is the broad perspective in sociology and
anthropology which sets out interpret a society as a structure with
interrelated parts (http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-structure
).
In short the theory of functionalism regard culture as an integrated
whole and tries to explain how the relationship among the part of society are
created and how that this part are functional (meaning having beneficial consequences
to the individual and society) and dysfunction (meaning having negative
consequences). This is according to Howard and Dunaif Hattis (1992).
The functionalism theory sees society as a complex system whose
parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. So, this means our
social lives guided by structure which are relatively stable patterns of social
behavior (Macionis, 1997).
According to anthropologists
Radchiff Brown and Bronslaw Malinowki, explain the functionalism in two contexts
which are structure structural functionalism and psychological functionalism.
Structural functionalism
stresses the characteristics of society and its structure over the individuals,
and how the various elements of social structure function to remain social
order and equilibrium (to make society as equal). And psychological
functionalism stress individual need to be met by society.
Generally, functionalism
addresses society as whole in terms of function of its constituents elements;
namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903),
explained that, the society work as “organs” that work toward the proper
functioning of the body as whole. According to him, compared society work as
like organs of human being such as brains, hearts and other parts of body
works. Example is that, government depending much on citizens and citizens
depend on government.
Alfred Redcliffe Brown,
explained that, the doctrine of functionalism states that all cultural straight
arise as a human adaptations to survive in a certain environments. So, any
straight can be analyzed to find the function related to survival of the
individual or society.
When explained survival needs
expressed in three contexts such as:-
1.
Individual, whereby culture must meet the survival need
of the individual and of the society. These needs of individual are method for
getting food, tools, and safety, relation to other human and medical needs.
2.
Society. The needs of society are reproduction,
protection, and distribution of resources and maintenance of order.
3.
Institution. This is to accomplish need of both
individual and society culture, generally have a certain institution such as
kinship, government, laws, economy and religion.
So, culture must motivate human
survive, and culture must provide humans with a meaning in life at some level
that wills them to put the effort into survival. Therefore, without the
fundamental motivation, women would not perform the work needed to continue
their existence and the culture would become extinct (no longer existing).
CRITICISM
The weakness of functionalist
theory has that, it failed to explain why society different or similar.
The theory also unable to
explain social and cultural change, as it viewed society as stable and
unchanging.
Functionalism failed to achieve
its ambition of building society as egalitarian. This was argued by Karl Max (1918-1983)
who said “the only way through which
capitalist can gain super profit is to insure intensive exploitation of workers
and not otherwise”
This was in the conference of Vienna Austria,
(1840’s). So, is how happening today within the era of imperialist whereby the
system increase gap between they have and they have not.
CONCLUTION
All this two theory come to
answer the question of why. And as a human being we need to apply it in order
to solve problem affecting us in a certain period of time. And that problem
should being solved through empirical evidence which involving conducting
research. So, by doing that people would work as organs.
REFERENCES
Elvio Angeloni (2008), Classic Edition Sources :
Anthropology, New York,
Mc Graw
Hill Press.
Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: the
exploration of human diversity, 10th Edition,
New York, Mc Graw Hill
Press.
McGree, R. J. and Warms, R. L. (2004),
Anthropological Theory; an introductory history,
3rd
Edition, Southwest
Taxas State
University, Mc Graw Hill
Press
Zerihun Doda (2005), Introduction To Social Cultural
Anthropology, Debub University,
EPHT (Ethiopia
Public Health Training Initiative) Press
00:42 Am
No comments:
Post a Comment