QUESTION:
Sociological theory has been shaped with the social context. Discuss the main
sociological context you know that have been developed by Karl Marx, Max Weber,
Emile Durkheim and Georg Simmel.
BY CHIWAMBO AUSI R.
INTRODUCTION
-Historical background of
sociological theory
-Definition of sociological theories
MAIN BODY
-Sociological context that has
developed by:-
KARL MARX
-Social change
-Conflict theory
MAX WEBER
-Rationalization
-Bureaucracy
EMILE DURKHEIM
-Suicide
-Social solidarity
GEORG SIMMEL
-Interactionism
-Phylosophy of money
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
BACKGRAUND
Sociological
theories are those modern theories
that are based on empirical evident aiming to evaluate social issues within our
society for benefit of the present and future time, and it developed by various
scholar in the 1800s and 1900s. Examples of scholars who developed these
sociological theories are Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Georg
Simmel.
Therefore, the following are the
definition of sociological theories:-
Sociological theory is defined as a set of interrelated
ideas that allows for systematization of knowledge of the social world. This
knowledge is used to explain the social world and make prediction about the
future of the social world (Robert O. Keel, 2011).
Sociological theory is complex theoretical and
methodological frameworks used to analyze and explain object of social study.
Examples of sociological theories are conflict theory, critical theory, feminist
theory, functionalism theory, and rational choice theory (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/introduction-to-sociological-theory)
Therefore,
sociological theory can be defined as
a complex theoretical framework that is used to explain social theories through
empirical formula (scientific method) and making judgments.
Therefore, it is true that
“Sociological theory has been shaped with the social context”. The following
are the main sociological contexts that have been developed by Karl Marx, Max
Weber, Emile Durkheim and Georg Simmel:-
KARL MARX
Karl
Marx developed social issues such as “conflict theory and social change” as
follows:-
CONFLICT
THEORY
Conflict
theory was the theory introduced by Karl Marx in the book “Communist
Manifesto”, 1848, (George Ritzer and Douglas J. Googman, 2004c). Conflict theory
argues that society is not best understood as a complex system striving for
equilibrium but rather as a competition. Society is made up of individuals
competing for limited resources. (http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/conflict-theory).
According to Karl Marx (1818-1883), in any societies
there are two major social groups: a ruling class and a subject class. The
ruling class derives its power from its ownership and control of the forces of
production. The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject class (lower
class). As a result there is a basic conflict of interest between these two
classes.
All
in all, conflict theory rose when exploitation of capitalist and existing
government being increase to lower class or workers, and the exploitative in
order to reduce and removal those kinds off injustice, they require forming
movements and overthrowing existing government.
Karl
Marx believed that, economic and political analysis of capitalism is the main
causes of conflict theory. This is due to forced labour, long working hours,
low wages and poor working condition which under capitalism system.
Conflict
theory still exist in Tanzania today and shaped our social context as we see in
our country now days there are various riots between workers and employer or
government vases Hawkers (in Swahili language we call “wamachinga”) in the city
like Mwanza, Arusha, and Mbeya.
SOCIAL CHANGE
Social
change it is essential feature of capitalism which existing all over the world.
Under this system, the means of production and distributing goods such as land,
factory technology, and transport system are owned by a small minority of
people, we refer this group of people as the capitalist class.
Functionalist
social theory tends to regard these economic activities as mundane necessity to
support cultural that depend upon it. Karl Mark believes that all society which
was under communist one the production of goods was structured on the way that
to produce great benefit for minority. Through this theory we can use it to
understand how capitalism leads to social change up to this present and how
people are exploited under capitalism.
MAX WEBER
Max
Weber explained about “rationalization, and social solidarity”. All this two
explained as follow:-
RATIONALIZATION
Rationalization
is the term used in sociology to refer to the process in which an increasing
number of social actions become based on considerations of teleological efficiency
or calculation (clarification needed) rather than on motivation divided from
morality, emotion, custom or tradition. Many sociologists regard it as a
central aspect of modernity, manifested especially in western society as a
behavior or the capitalist market of ration administration in the state and
bureaucracy.
The
rationally com from Weber’s ideas, during his work. Weber tries to explain
about the rationalization with the consideration of three categories such as
bureaucracy, religion, and society. Because these things found and be applied
by human being every day in their life. Due to rationalization is among of
social context, means something used in our society today Weber used
rationalization to explain thee types of legitimate authority in the society.
In this Weber described legitimate as “the publicly reasons for obeying or
complaining with the command issue from the authority”.
In
tradition authority, Weber explains how power generated in tradition authority.
This is where as legal system from the legitimacy of the rational legal system.
Tradition authority is based on a claim by the leaders, and belief on the part
of the following; these explain how pennon can create followers as tradition
leader on the society. Also in our society there are good examples of
traditional leader like chief Mkwawa through, he has enough ability to mobilize
people and except he said, and this traditional authority can be rule by elders
or inherit positions.
Charismatic
authority; this is the concept that is come to be used every broadly (Sakes,
1997; Werbner and Basu, 1998). The person who has ordinary supernatural power,;
means that someone who can be respected and his/her power to control people in
the society.
In
this, there is no need to find thus supernatural power found. But its
automatically happen (spontaneously) to any person. In our society today and
pass through history and best events there are sample this charismatic issues
like J. K. Nyerere in Tanzania, also there is somebody known as Mwanamarundi in
Mwanza Tanzania.
BUREAUCRACY
The
theory of bureaucracy was founded by Max Weber a Germany sociologist
(1864-1920). Weber intention was to describe features of an ideal (model)
organizations or formal structure that could facilitate conduct of official
activities (business) efficiently and effectively with higher degree of
rationality.
According
to Weber’s bureaucracy is a normal way that legal rational authority appears in
constitutional form (organized way), it plays central role in ordering and
controlling modern organizations. He meant a construct or mode that service as
a measuring rod against with actual cases can be evaluated. Weber proposed that whether at his purpose it
is to run a church, a corporation or any army that the ideal can be applied.
Weber
studying bureaucracy as a power, he reflects type of power and authority which
figures our society today. By studying Weber’s theory of bureaucracy we can
understand better why in today’s society contain people hold more or high
authority than others.
EMILE DURKHEIM
Emile
Durkheim was discussed two social context such as “suicide and social
solidarity”. This are:-
SUICIDE
Suicide
is the act or instance of killing one self, and that can be in internationally
level or within a country. This theory was developed by Emile Durkheim. He
founded that lack of social integration, group involvement and collective
consciousness as the reasons for high suicide in the mid of 18th
century up to 19th century.
But
the reasons highlighted by Durkheim as the causes of suicide are even
applicable in modern society. And the people who commit suicide in high rate is
unmarriage compared to marriage one as we see now days. According to Durkheim
analyzed three types of suicide such as anomie suicide, egoistic suicide and
anomie suicide. Particular in Palestine, Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia, and
Nigeria are the examples of people who commit suicide for high rate in today,
this is due to excessive degree of group integration now days. Also today we see
people committing suicide due to the fact they fail to fulfill their ambition.
SOCIAL SOLIDARITY
Emile
Durkheim (1858-1917) was the most prominent French sociologist of 19th
century. He was erudite scholar, great thinker, who comes up with the theory of
solidarity. Social solidarity refers to the integration and degree or type of
the integration manifest by society group. The bases of social solidarity are
different and complex societies. He made a comparison between the primitive and
the civilized by “mechanical solidarity based on the conscience collective” and
the advanced society is characterized by organic solidarity based on the
division of labour.
As
defined by Durkheim, mechanical solidarity refers to social solidarity based upon
homogeneity of value and behavior. Strong social constraint, and loyalty to
tradition and kinship while social solidarity refers to the types of societal
solidarity typically in modern industrial society, in which unity is based on
the interdependence of every larger number of high specialized roles in the
system involving a complex division of labour that require the cooperation of
almost all group and individual of the society.
This
theory is still applicable until now in the society, this is due to the fact
that individual in the society has similarities, people do not differ much.
Also solidarity is highly needed in the society because it encourages
development.
GEORG SIMMEL
Georg
Simmel introduced two ideas such as “symbolic interactions” and “the philosophy
of money”. George Simmel explained as follows:-
SYMBOLIC INTERACTION
The
idea of symbolic interaction was introduced by Georg Simmel (1859-1918), shown
by George Ritzer and Douglas J. Googman, (2004c) in the book Sociological
Theory. Simmel explained interactions in form of political, economic, religion,
and sexual behavior. Simmel considered society to be an association of free
individuals and said that it could not be studied in the same way as the
physical world. Simmel also continued to say “society is made up of the
interactions between and among individuals, and the sociologist should study
the parttens and form of these association rather than request after social law
(Farganis, 1993:133).
This
statement emphasis on social interaction at the individual and small level, and
viewing the study of these interactions are the primary task. Georg Simmel
explained idea of interaction by emphasis from individual levels (smallest
level of interaction) to largest level of institution. Example of small
interaction can be group of dyads (consist of only two people) or tried
(consist of only three members), and large scale interaction are like
institution.
This
theory is applicable even today in our family and working place. The
interactions of workers from various organizations help them to exchange ideas,
and then they have ability implement it in their organization, hence increase
of production and services. Therefore, through interaction an individual can
champion some changes based on positive way which can lead to increase levels
of development in the society. This interaction can be the people of one
culture and another culture, organization and organization, blacks and white
people, or can be either student from various schools.
THE PHYLOSOPHY OF MONEY
“The
philosophy of money” was the book and theory of money which was written by
Georg Simmel (1859-1918), shown by George Ritzer and Douglas J. Googman, (2004c).
Philosophy of money stand as an idea developed by him emphasis on money, and
its important and consequence to the society all over the world.
In
this book, Simmel is concerned with money as a symbol, and what some of
the effects of this are for people and society. In modern society, money
becomes an impersonal or objectified measure of value. This implies impersonal,
rational ties among people that are institutionalized in the money form.
For
example, relations of domination and subordination become quantitative
relationships of more and less money (impersonal and measurable in a rational
manner). The use of money distances individuals from objects and also provides
the means of overcoming this distance. The use of money allows much greater
flexibility for individuals in society (to travel greater distances and to
overcome person-to-person limitations.)
Simmel
thus suggests that “the spread of the
money form gives individuals a freedom of sorts by permitting them to exercise
the kind of individualized
control over "impression management" that was not possible in
traditional societies. ... Ascribed identities have been discarded. Even strangers become familiar and knowable
identities insofar as they are willing to use a common but impersonal means of
exchange”. (Ashley and Orenstein, 1990:326)
At
the same time, personal identity becomes problematic, so that development of
the money form has both positive and negative consequences. That is, individual
freedom is potentially increased greatly, but there are problems of alienation,
fragmentation, and identity construction.
Simmel
concluded that, “a society in which money
becomes an end, in itself can cause individuals to become increasingly cynical
and to have the blasé attitude,( George
Ritzer and Douglas J. Googman, 2004c).
By
relating in our society we live today, a person who have money become the
controller of the system production such as industrial, and medias like
Newspaper and television. Examples is
Regnand Mengi in Tanzania own more than one media (such as Capital television,
Chanel 5, ITV Daima, and Newspaper including The Guardian and Nipashe) and
factories or industry including Bonite Bottles industry dealing with production
of drinks, present in Moshi-Kilimanjaro region.
CONCLUSION
The
sociological theories are most important because it explained reality of our
lives in modern societies and try to come with the solution of the phenomena or
problem which arose in the society. Also it leads us to learn the earliest
peoples who succeeded in such phenomena by follow their ways of
succession.
REFERENCES
Farganis,
J.(1993), Readings in Social Theory:
the Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism
New
York, McGraw-Hill,
Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2008), Sociology “A Global
Introduction”, 4th Edition,
London, Pearson Education Limited.
Ritzer,
G. and Goodman, J. D. (2004c), Sociological Theory, 6th Edition,
University of
Maryland & Puget Sound, McGraw
Hill Publisher
Schaefer,
R. T. (2008), sociology Matters, 3rd Edition, New York, McGraw Hill
Pub.
Shankar
Rao, C. N. (2006),Sociology: a principles of sociology with an introduction to
Social thought, 6th
Edition, Indian university, Rejendra Ravindra and S. Chand
Press.
McGree,
R. J. and Warms, R. L. (2004), Anthropological Theory; an introductory history,
3rd Edition, Southwest
Taxas State University, McGraw Hill Press
Bilton,
T., Bonnett, K.,Jones, P, Lawson, T., Skinner, D.,Stanworth, M.,and Wedster, A.
(2002), Introductory Sociology, 4th Edition, New York,
Palgrave Macmillan Press
Knapp,
P., (1992) One World -- Many Worlds:
Contemporary Sociological Theory
New York,Harper-Collins.
Ritzer,
and George, (1992) Sociological Theory,
third edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
powered by CHIWAMBO AUSI R, MAY 2012, TEOFILO KISANJI UNIVERSITY (TEKU).
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