Boserup, (1970), identified African Countries where women work to produce food, crops for domestic substance and men work in production of cash crops for market sale. By giving example, depict the status of women in Tanzania

Introduction

Traditionally the position of women in Tanzania has been low compared to men. Women were not expected to influence the decision-making processes from domestic level to the national level. In the family attitudes, which consider men as heads of households, exists. These attitudes are rigidly based on patriarchal structures, which limit women voices from influencing allocation of domestic resources. At national level, the existing attitudes influence the election and appointment of women to high profile positions and hence limit women’s voices from impacting decision making and the planning process, (URT 2003).

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

Status is simply defined as a position occupied by a person, family or kinship in social system relative to others this determine right, duties other behaviors including nature and  extent of the relationship with person of other status, (Shankarrao, 2006).

Status is the place in a particular system, which a certain individual occupies at a particular time, ( Ralph Linton, 1945).

Type of status

Ascribed status; these are those over which the individual has absolutely choice, they are derived from membership in involuntary groups such as sex group, age group, racial group this is derived at the beginning stages of socialization itself the new born individual derives such status.

Achieved status; the statuses about which a person has some choices, however much or little achieved status

Ester Boserup Danish economist born on May 18, 1910 and die September 24, 1999, in Copenhagen. She studied economic and agricultural development, worked at the United Nations as well as other international organizations, and she wrote several books. Her most notable book is The Conditions of Agricultural Growth, The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure.

Ester Boserup identified African Countries where women work to produce food, crops for domestic substance and men work in production of cash crops for market sale, the following are the status of women in Tanzania.

The constitution recognizes women‘s capacity and the right to participate in politics, social and economic life of the country. The right to vote and the right to stand for election are provided equally for men and women. This was practiced successfully in the 2000 general elections. This is a clear indication that there is a conducive environment for women to participate freely and equally with men in politics and decision making in Tanzania.

Access to employment, in formal sector in Tanzania is determines women’s economic empowerment as well. Currently, formal sector employment for women in Tanzania is satisfiable, as it accounts for total employment. The Ministry of Community Development Gender and Children (2005) revealed that the proportion of women in the formal employment rose from 15% in 2009 to 24.7% in 2012, (URT 2013).

 Equal access to land ownership, the land and Village Act of 1999  provides  equal access to landownership However, in matters of family land, particularly related to matters of inheritance, customary law has been allowed to function, (URT, 1999).   Previously this act seemed to be neglected but currently the act is getting  momentum by the support of re amended land Act no. 2 of 2004 which explaining and make more emphasis in the right of women to own land, hence rise the status of women of being socially recognized.

Participation in decision making, previously in Tanzania women's participation in decision making at both the household and community level was minimal as shown by a study in Iringa and Kagera regions (Nkhoma-Wamunza et al 1989). In the seven villages surveyed men dominated in decision making. They were the ones who decided on how much land should be allocated to the growing of different crops, how much money should be spent on the purchase of tools of production and farm inputs, and how much labour should be invested in the different crops grown. 

Decisions on the application of fertilizer, insecticides; sale of farm produce acquisition of loans, and issues related to money were made by men. But to some extent the situation has been changed particularly in urban areas where by women have access to stay with their husbands and deciding what to do.

Women Participation in Political Processes, the first cabinet of Tanganyika after independence did not have a female holding a full ministerial position. Only two women were appointed as Deputy Ministers that is Bibi Titi Deputy Minister of Health while Lucy Lameck was first appointed as a Parliamentary Secretary of Cooperatives and Community Development from 1962 -1965 (URT, 2005). But at present women have a good position in political participation where by many of them are district commissioners, members of the parliament, and International representatives in different sectors. This reveals the rise of women status.

Educational enrolment, in Tanzania, free primary education has led to more girls being educated, at least at the primary level.  With fees placed on schools, it is much more likely that a family will invest in boys.  While only about 1 percent of people in Tanzania go on to higher education, and most of them come from the wealthiest sliver of the population, about 30 percent of these students are now women.  Government loan programs have helped less advantaged students get to universities, but funds are generally fairly scarce.

Social Justice, the Government of Tanzania recognizes that women’s advancement and achievement of gender equality are a matter of human rights and a condition to social justice. The Government of Tanzania reaffirms its commitment to enhancement of women’s rights for national and world progress. 

The Government has ractified the convention on the elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Furthermore, the Government of Tanzania reaffirms its commitment to the Beijing Platform for Action that upholds the Convention for total elimination of all kinds of discrimination against women and all other international human rights instruments calling for gender equality. Promotion of women participation in politics and decision making is among the four critical areas of concern for Tanzania.

Conclusion

Currently the statuses of women in Tanzania have been improved after the Beijing conference, that there have been significant achievements in the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action. In the first four critical areas that the government identified a number of policies, laws and programmes were put in place to create an environment that would ensure that women’s position moves from that of marginalization to that of partnership, dignity and equality (URT, 2005).

References

Nkhoma Wamunza A, Muchen, K, Darah C. and Saur G. (1989), “Africa Index to continental

          Literature  Lagos Scientific Publishers”,   Nigeria

Ralph Linton 1945, “the cultural background of personality”, 5^th Edition New York USA

Shankarrao C.N. (2006), Sociology “Principles of Sociology with introduction to social

thoughts” 6^th Edition Schad and Co. Ltd

URT (1999), The village Act 1999, Government Publishers Ltd.

URT (2003) Country Report On Implementation Of The Beijing Platform of Action

URT (2OO5), Women participation in positions of power and influence in Tanzania,

           Government Printers Dar Es Salaam.

URT, (2005), Country Report on the Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action and The

          Outcome document of the Twenty-third Special Session of the General Assembly- Beijing,

           Government Printers, Dar Es Salaam.

Retrieved on http://www. dictionary.reference.com/browse/status/27^th March, 2014.

Written By AUSI CHIWAMBO (2014)-Teofilo Kisanji University

With relevant examples from East Africa, Explain rituals of death

INTRODUCTION

In all societies, when a person dies, family, friends, and neighbors respond in structured, patterned ways to the death. Cultural guidelines determine the treatment and disposal of the body and prescribe a period of mourning for close relatives. Death ritual, like much of human behavior, is an expression of a cultural blueprint, of attitudes, values and ideals passed down by parents, and their parents, which an individual learns as a member of society.Preparing a home after the death of a loved one is an important funeral rite. 

The windows are smeared with ashes, pictures are turned to face the wall and any reflective object such as a television or mirror is covered. In the deceased person's bedroom, the bed is removed and the women of the family sit on the floor upon a mattress or cushion. For the next week or two, people in the community visit these women to offer their respect and condolences. In Christian homes, the day before a funeral the dead person is brought home and placed in their bedroom. 

Family members then hold a vigil until the next morning. It is common to sacrifice animals as part of the death ritual in Africa. An ox is the popular choice, as it is believed this animal will accompany the deceased person to the land of their ancestors. Oxen also serve another purpose; the beasts provide food for the mourners. Other families may choose to sacrifice an animal month or even several years after a person has died. It is believed that a person has never truly died until there is no one left among the living to remember them, (Milton Cohen, 1971).

Ritual; generally requires a sacred context, says Lessa, although the prime requisite is that it be attended by sentiments, values, and beliefs which transcend the utilitarian. Behavior is ritualistic if it is habitual, socially sanctioned, symbolic and without any practical consideration, (Lessa 1971)

A ritual "is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, and objects, performed in a sequestered place, and performed according to set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism and performance.

Even though death is universal to all people in every culture, the responses to death and dying vary greatly. Death rituals are based on beliefs that come from religion, history, language, and art. The following is of ideas and beliefs that shape a cultures death ritual practices:

·                   Beliefs toward the meaning of life, Beliefs about whether or not there is life after death.

·                   If you believe there is life after death, what happens to a person's soul and body?

·                   Do dead people come back in spirit to intervene in or watch over the lives of the living?

·                   What type of burial or disposal of the body is necessary for the climate, country, or people?

·                   Is death accepted or feared?

·                   How open is the culture in speaking about death?

·                   How is death depicted in art, poetry, music, and theater?

·                   Is there a connection between the living to the dead by prayer or visiting the grave?

·                   Does the soul go directly to heaven?

·                   Will the body be reunited with the soul at some point in the future?

·                   Does a person need to be forgiven of his sins before his death?

·                   What superstitions about death exist?

Common Death Rituals Still Practiced

Modern day death rituals continue today. The following are a few death rituals that occur in cultures around the world.

Throwing A Handful of Dirt on the Casket

It is common in many cultures for mourners to toss a handful of dirt on the casket before leaving the cemetery. Rarely do mourners stay to watch the entire casket being buried by the cemetery workers. Throwing the dirt on the grave may symbolize that mourners understand that our bodies return to the earth.

Mourning

Mourning is a common ritual when someone dies. The process of mourning and even the amount of crying or wailing differs among cultures. for example, generally cry or wail more emphatically than others. Women cry more than men, possibly due to cultural views that crying might show weakness.

The Wake

The wake is a death ritual practiced in many cultures. During the wake, friends or family of the deceased sit with the corpse for several days and nights to watch and express pain. Part of the wake is usually conducted with prayer and scripture.

Dressing in Black

Dressing in black for an entire year after the death of a spouse or close family member was common practice for hundreds of years. It is still fairly common and acceptable to wear black or darker colors to the funeral.but now days people are dressing white due to changes within our society.

Funeral Procession

Before the advent of vehicles, mourners walked by foot to follow the pallbearers who were carrying the casket. Today the funeral procession is done by vehicle. The hearse carrying the casket is in front, usually following a police escort.

Bagpipes Playing

Bagpipes are often played during Irish and Scottish funerals. They are also part of the death rituals at funerals of firefighters, police officers, military, or others to show honor and respect.

Tearing a Piece of Clothing

The members of the deceased's immediate family tear a piece of their clothing to show the loss they are feeling. In some cases, the Rabbi will pin a piece of torn black ribbon to the families clothing. At the cemetery, there will be a walking procession following the pallbearers. The procession will be halted seven times and the Star of David will be etched in the head stone, although this may be placed later.

Tolling of the Bell

Tolling the bell is done at firefighters and police officers funerals to indicate the bell that signals them to go to an emergency.

How the authentic funeral helps meet the six reconciliation needs of mourning:

Acknowledge the reality of the death

 When someone loved dies, we must openly acknowledge the reality and the finality of the death if we are to move forward with our grief. Typically, we embrace this reality in two phases. First we acknowledge the death with our minds; we are told that someone we loved has died and, intellectually at least, we understand the fact of the death. Over the course of the following days and weeks, and with the gentle understanding of those around us, we begin to acknowledge the reality of the death in our hearts.

Move toward the pain of the loss

As our acknowledgment of the death progresses from what I call "head understanding" to "heart understanding," we begin to embrace the pain of the loss-another need the bereaved must have met if they are to heal. Healthy grief means expressing our painful thoughts and feelings, and healthy funeral ceremonies allow us to do just that.

Remember the person who died

To repair in sorrow, we must shift our relationship with the person who died from one of physical presence to one of memory. The authentic funeral encourages us to begin this shift, for it provides a natural time and place for us to think about the moments we shared-good and bad-with the person who died. Like no other time before or after the death, the funeral invites us to focus on our past relationship with that one, single person and to share those memories with others.

Develop a new self-identity

The development of a new self-identity. We are all social beings whose lives are given meaning in relation to the lives of those around us The funeral helps us begin this difficult process of developing a new self-identity because it provides a social venue for public acknowledgment of our new roles. If you are a parent of a child and that child dies, the funeral marks the beginning of your life as a former parent (in the physical sense  you will always have that relationship through memory). Others attending the funeral are in effect saying, "We acknowledge your changed identity and we want you to know we still care about you." This self-identity issue is illustrated by a comment the bereaved often make: "When he died, I felt like a part of me died, too."

Search for meaning 

When someone loved dies, we naturally question the meaning of life and death. Why did this person die? Why now? Why this way? Why does it have to hurt so much? What happens after death? To heal in grief, we must explore these types of questions if we are to become reconciled to our grief. In fact, we must first ask these "why" questions to decide why we should go on living before we can ask ourselves how we will go on living. This does not mean we must find definitive answers, only that we need the opportunity to think and feel things through.

On a more fundamental level, the funeral reinforces one central fact of our existence: we will die. Like living, Thus the funeral helps us search for meaning in the life and death of the person who died as well as in our own lives and future deaths. Each funeral we attend serves as a sort of dress rehearsal for our own. Funerals are a way in which we as individuals and as a community convey our beliefs and values about life and death. The very fact of a funeral demonstrates that death is important to us. For the living to go on living as fully and as healthily as possible, this is as it should be.

Receive ongoing support from others

As we have said, funerals are a public means of expressing our beliefs and feelings about the death of someone loved. In fact, funerals are the public venue for offering support to others and being supported in grief, both at the time of the funeral and into the future. Funerals make a social statement that says, "Come support me." Whether they realize it or not, those who choose not to have a funeral are saying, "Don't come support me."Funerals let us physically demonstrate our support, too. Sadly, ours is not a demonstrative society, but at funerals we are allowed to embrace, to touch, to comfort.  This physical show of support is one of the most important healing aspects of meaningful funeral ceremonies.

Reccomandation

Finally, and most simply, funerals serve as the central gathering place for mourners. When we care about someone who died or his family members, we attend the funeral if at all possible. Our physical presence is our most important show of support for the living. By attending the funeral we let everyone else there know that they are not alone in their grief Sometimes therapeutic intervention is necessary. The Society for the Advancement of Bereavement Management has created programs in which a funeral director stays in contact with the family doctor to help families recover from their grief.

 Conclusion

 Life does not end with death, but continues in another realm. The concepts of "life" and "death" are not mutually exclusive concepts, and there are no clear dividing lines between them. Human existence is a dynamic process involving the increase or decrease of "power" or "life force," of "living" and "last," and there are different levels of life and death. Many African languages express the fact that things are not going well, such as when there is sickness, in the words "we are living a little," meaning that the level of life is very low. 

The African religions scholar Placide Tempels describes every misfortune that Africans encounter as "a diminution of vital force." Illness and death result from some outside agent, a person, thing, or circumstance that weakens people because the agent contains a greater life force. Death does not alter or end the life or the personality of an individual, but only causes a change in its conditions. This is expressed in the concept of "ancestors," people who have died but who continue to "live" in the community and communicate with their families.

Reference

 Milton Cohen,(1971, “Death Ritual” Anthropological Perspectives

http://www.newingtonmemorial.com/support/grief-words/why-is-the-funeral-ritual-important

http://ethnomed.org/clinical/end-of-life/death-in-viet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_and_culture

Written By AUSI CHIWAMBO (2014)-Teofilo Kisanji University

What is Culture of higher fertility?

INTRODUCTION

 High fertility rates in sub Saharan Africa (SSA) have been pinpointed to exhibit a very unique demographic scenario in the world that sets it apart from other regions in the world. Demographers are particularly keen on comprehending the dynamics surrounding the demographic transition of the sub continent especially with respect to its movement from high fertility rates to low fertility rates. 

The decline in fertility embodies the second phase of the demographic transition process (Malmberg 2008) Contrary to the case of most regions like Europe, South America and Asia that have for long entered the fertility transition marked by a declined in their fertility rates in the 1950s and 1960s,, sub Saharan Africa is the only region in the world, where fertility decline has been rather slow and late. According to Bo Malmberg (2008), the current fertility rates in the sub continent stand at the same level as that of Asia and South America towards the end of the 1970s. 

According to arguments postulated by the demographic transition theory, all regions are expected to undergo a demographic transition that is characterized by the movement from high fertility rates and mortality rates to low fertility and mortality rates. Most countries in Sub Saharan Africa are still experiencing relatively higher fertility rates. What can be discern from the information so far provided, is that sub Saharan Africa is the sole region in the world that has not so far experienced any significant decline in its fertility rates (Etienne Van de Walle and Dominique Meekers, 1994).

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

Culture is totality of learned, socially, transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects and behavior it include the ideas, values and artifacts examples dvd,comic books and birth control devices of the groups of people, (Richard T. Schaefer,2008).

Culture is learned behavior which is socially is acquired that is the material and non material traits which are passed from one generation to another, (Eugene A. Nida, 1952).

Culture refers to the social heritage of a people those learned partners to thinking, feeling and acting that are transmitted from one generation to next, including embodiment of these patterns in material items, (Michael Hughes and Carolyn J. Krochler, 2005).

Fertility refers to the average number of children that would be born to a woman over her life time (www.answers.about/fertility rate).

Generally higher fertility refers to the tendency of a woman to bear many children over her life time or higher fertility rate means that more children are born in the given country every year.

Most of the counties with the lowest rate of contraceptive use, highest maternal, infant and child mortality rates and highest fertility rates are in Africa. The following are the factors accounting for higher fertility rate in developing countries.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE HIGHER FERTILITY

Lower status to women, women generally due to their lower status relative to men in most sub-Saharan African societies have less control on reproduction something which affect the kevel of contraceptive use since men most often than not tend to decide on fertility matters,  also due to women not being involved in decision making on fertility matters they don’t have awareness on the uses of contraceptive which can reduce high fertility in the community as a results men are forcing them on the number of children they should bear hence this leads to the higher fertility within the society.

Polygamy, this refers to the practice or custom of having more than one wife at the same time, therefore many men in sub-Saharan countries feel proud for having many wives at the same time while others men do so for the purpose of defense as well as for the workforce purposes, hence this kind of marriage has resulted each woman bearing six up to eight children per each as a result the culture is of higher fertility.

Remarriage of widows, the culture of inheritance in most of the sub-Saharan countries is among of the causative factor contribute to the higher fertility and this happen when woman is inherited to another husband where also she is required to have other children regardless she had a lot of children to the first husband and this kind of culture has been practiced to the countries like Tanzania Uganda and Burundi since the fertility is becoming large.

Early and forced marriage is a marriage in which one or both of the parties is married without his or her consent or against his or her will. This contributes to the higher fertility in the sense that girls are forced to engage in marriage before their required time that means below eighteen (18) years as a result they find that they have a lot of children while still they are young, therefore until to become elders already they have beard a number of children and this is commonly in sub-Saharan countries something which contribute to the higher society.

Higher illiteracy, also in sub-Saharan countries majority of the people are illiteracy, so due to this they fail to practice family planning method like contraceptive use like condom which can help them to have a limit of children per each family as a result they bear many children who lack to get some basic social services like education and health services hence this leads to higher fertility.

Son preference, despite a strong family planning program and a growing desire for smaller families, women in sub-Saharan often have more children than they would like because of longstanding preference for sons over daughters, it have been said that women were more likely to stop having children if their last child had been a son rather than a daughter.

Infant mortality rate, a family may have more children if a country’s infant mortality rate is high, since it is likely some of those children will die. Therefore due to the infant mortality rate facing many sub-Saharan countries comparing to the developed countries where infant mortality is low thus why population in developing countries is increasing.

Poverty, this also contributes to the higher fertility in the facts that, children can be viewed as an economic resource in developing countries since they can earn money. As people require more training, parents tend to have fewer children and invest more resources in each child, lower the level of technology higher the birth rate.

CONCLUSION

All in all high fertility can be of byproduct or residue of cultural, economic and social factors, sociocultural factors or circumstances have been pinpointed to play pivotal role for the relatively high fertility rates prevailing in the region. This range from high infant and child mortality, early and universal marriage low contraceptive use and the high value placed on child realing causes culture of higher fertility. Typically higher fertility is associated with health problems, low life expectancy, low living standards, low social status to women and low education level.

REFERENCES

Chytilová, M. Bauer, P. Streblov, (2007) “Determinants of Fertility in Uganda; microeconomic       evidence 1, Economic Theory of Political Markets”.

Caldwell, John C. (1980) “Mass education as a determinant of the timing of fertility decline.”       

Hughes Michael and kroehler Carolyn J (2005) “sociology the core” 7^th Edition.

Macionis, John. J and plummer ken (2008) sociology “A global introduction” 4^th Edition. Person Education limited England.

Schaefer Richard T. (2008) “sociology A brief introduction” 6^th Edition, Mc Graw Hill.

Written By AUSI CHIWAMBO (2014)-Teofilo Kisanji University